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MANUAL 


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Composition  and  Rhetoric 


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BY 

JOHN  S.  HART,  LL.D., 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  RHETORIC  AND  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  IN 

THE  COLLEGE  OF  NEW  JERSEY,  FORMERLY  PRINCIPAL  OF  THE   NEW  JERSEY 

STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  AUTHOR  OF  A  SERIES  OF  TEXT-BOOKS 

ON  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE,  ETC.,   ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
ELDREDGE   &  BROTHER, 

No.  17  North  Seventh  Street. 
1882. 


A  SERIES  OF  TEXT-BOOKS 

ON 

THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

By  JOHN   S.  HART,  LL.D. 


Language -Lessons  for  Beginners. 
An  Elementary  English  Grammar. 
English  Grammar  and  Analysis. 
First  Lessons  in  Composition. 
Composition  and  Rhetoric. 
A  Short  Course  in  Literature. 
A  Manual  of  English  Literature. 
A  Manual  of  American  Literature. 
A  Class-Book  of  Poetry. 


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&** **£§^ 


>  Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870, 

ELDREDGE   &   BROTHER, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington 


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Add  to  Lib, 
GIFT 


*T7 
Preface. 


npHIS  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  a  text-book.  It  has  been  writ- 
-*-  ten  for  learners,  not  for  the  learned.  Its  object  is,  not 
to  extend  the  boundaries  of  the  science  by  excursions  into 
debatable  ground,  but  to  present  its  admitted  truths  in  a 
form  easily  apprehended.  By  this  statement,  however,  I  do 
not  wish  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  treatise  is  unscientific 
in  its  character  or  its  methods.  I  mean  merely  that  I  have 
studiously  avoided  cumbering  my  book  with  the  many  ab- 
struse and  still  unsolved  questions  which  environ  the  subject. 
Those  questions  are  not  without  interest  or  value,  and  few 
persons  have  a  keener  relish  for  their  discussion  than  the 
writer,  whose  life-long  studies  have  been  in  that  precise  line 
of  inquiry.  But  original  investigation  is  felt  to  be  out  of 
place  in  a  text-book  for  instruction  in  the  elements.  At  the 
same  time,  it  is  believed,  the  attentive  reader,  who  is  familiar 
with  the  recent  literature  of  the  science,  will  find  the  subject 
brought  up  to  the  latest  clearly  ascertained  results,  while  in 
some  directions  a  decided  advance  has  been  made. 

002  iU 


IV  PREFACE. 

The  text  has  been,  purposely,  and  most  carefully,  broken 
up  into  portions  convenient  for  the  uses  of  the  class-room. 
These  typographical  arrangements  necessarily  give  to  the 
pages  a  somewhat  fragmentary  appearance.  But  any  one 
who  will  take  the  trouble  to  look  will  see  at  a  glance  that 
the  matter  throughout  is  closely  connected  and  continuous, 
—  that  it  forms  a  compacted  and  orderly  system. 

Rhetoric,  like  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  many  kindred 
subjects  of  study,  is  an  art  as  Well  as  a  science,  and  no  text- 
book for  the  class-room  is  of  much  value  which  is  not  well 
furnished  with  examples  for  practice.  In  the  preparation 
of  the  present  work,  no  labor  has  been  spared  in  this  re- 
spect. In  the  apparatus  required  by  the  teacher  for  train- 
ing students  in  the  practical  applications  of  the  principles 
of  Rhetoric,  the  book,  it  is  believed,  may  safely  challenge 
comparison  with  any  work  on  the  subject  that  is  before  the 
public.  J.  S.  H. 

State  Normal  School, 
Trenton,  N.  J. 

NOTE  TO  THE  REVISED   EDITION. 

The  attention  of  Teachers  is  called  to  the  method  given  on  page  347  for  Cor- 
recting Compositions.  This  method  has  been  found  to  be  of  the  greatest  practical 
value  as  a  means  of  lessening  the  labor  of  correction.  Where  classes  are  large, 
and  the  exercise  is  frequent,  this  labor  is  often  enormous.  Yet  it  is  a  labor  that 
cannot  be  omitted,  if  the  scholar  is  to  reap  the  full  benefit  of  the  exercise.  Gen- 
eral criticisms  are  of  comparatively  little  value.  It  is  the  minute  criticism  of 
words  and  sentences,  in  detail,  tbat  chiefly  benefits  the  student;  and  to  write 
these  criticisms  out  in  full  involves  an  amount  of  labor  which  few  teachers  are 
willing  to  give.  By  the  system  of  notation  here  suggested,  this  labor  is  1  pawned 
by  at  least  four-fifths. 


-« 


Contents. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

General  Terms  Defined,  .  .  .  .  .  .         .         .  -        .   17 

General  Divisions,       .........         IS 


PART   I, 


STYLE. 


Definition  of  Style, 
Division  of  the  Subject, 


CHAPTER  I. 
Punctuation  and  Capitals. 

Definition  and  History  of  the  Subject,    .       .          .          .          .          .  .21 

Division  of  the  Subject,         ........  22 

SECTION   I.— The  Comma. 

Rule  1.  Parenthetical  Expressions,      .          .          .          .          .          .  .24 

Rule  2.  Intermediate  Expressions,           ......  26 

Rule  3.  Dependent  Clauses,       ........    27 

Rule  4.  Relative  Clauses,      ........  28 

Rule  5.  Co-ordinate  Clauses,      .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .30 

Rule  6.  Grammatical  Expressions  in  the  Same  Construction,        .          .  30 

Rule  7.  Words  in  the  Same  Construction,    .          .          .          .          .  .31 

1*  .  V 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Rule  8.  Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs, 32 

Rule  9.  Nouns  in  Apposition,      .....  .  .  33 

Rule  10.  The  Vocative  Case 34 

Rule  11.  The  Case  Absolute, 34 

Rule  12.  Inverted  Expressions,       .......  34 

Rule  13.  Ellipsis  of  the  Verb, 35 

Rule  14.  Short  Quotations 35 

SECTION   II.— The  Semicolon. 

Rule  1.  Subdivided  Members  in  Compound  Sentences,             .          .  .38 

Rule  2.  Clauses  and  Expressions  having  a  Common  Dependence,          .  37 

Rule  3.  Sentences  Connected  in  Meaning,  but  not  Grammatically,    .  .    37 

Rule  4.  The  Clause  Additional, 38 

Rule  5.  A  General  Term  in  Apposition  to  the  Particulars  under  it, .  .39 

SECTION   III.— The  Colon. 

Rule  1.  Greater  Divisions  of  Complex  Sentences,  .  .  .  .40 

Rule  2.  Before  a  Quotation,  .......         40 

Rule  3.  Yes  and  No 40 

Rule  4.  Title-pages 40 

SECTION   IV.— The  Period. 

Rule  1  Complete  Sentences,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .42 

Rule  2.  After  Titles,  etc 43 

Rule  3.  After  Abbreviations,     ........    43 

SECTION  V.— The  Interrogation. 
Rule.  The.  Direct  Question, 46 

SECTION  VI.— The  Exclamation. 

Rule  1.  After  Strong  Emotion,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .47 

Rule  2.  After  an  Interjection,         .......         48 

Rule,  3.  Double  Exclamations,  ........    48 

SECTION  VII.— The  Dash. 

Rule  1.  Construction  Changed,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .50 

Rule  2.  Change  in  Sentiment,        .......         50 

Rule  3.  Emphatic  Generalization,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .50 

Rule  4.  Elocutionary  Pause,  .......         50 

Rule  5.  Expressions  Dependent  upon  Concluding  Clause,        .  .  .51 

Rule  6.  Rhetorical  Repetition 51 

Pule  7.  Reflex  Apposition,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .51 

Rule  8.  The  Dash  Parenthetical,    .......         52 

Rule  9.  Titles  Run  in 52 

Rule  10.  Question  and  Answer,      .......         53 

Rule  11.  Omissions 53 

Rule  12.  Examples  on  a  New  Line,         ......        53 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

SECTION  VIII.— The  Parenthesis.  page 

Rule,  .  . 54 

SECTION  IX.— Brackets. 
Rule 56 

SECTION  X.— Quotations. 

Rule  1.  Words  Taken  from  Another  Author,         .          .          .          .  .58 

Rule  2.  Quotation  Within  a  Quotation,  ......  59 

Rule  3.  Consecutive  Paragraphs,        .          .          .          .          .          .  .60 

SECTION  XI.— Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  etc. 

Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  Caret,  Index,  etc.,       .          .          .          .          .  .61 

Captions,  Side-Heads,  Kinds  of  Type,  etc.,       .....  63 

SECTION  XII.— Capitals. 

Rule  1.  Title-pages,  and  Headings,    .          .          .          .          .          .  .63 

Rule  2.  First  Words, 64 

Rules  3-10.  Numbered  Clauses,  etc.,  .          .          .          .          .          .  .64 

Rules  11-14.  Names  of  God,  etc 65 

Rules  15-18.  Proper  Names,  etc.,         .          .          .          .          .          .  .66 

Rules  19,  20.  Special  Importance,  Personification,       ....  67 

CHAPTER  II. 
Diction. 

Definition  — How  to  Obtain  Command  of  Words,  .          .          .          .  .71 

Division  of  the  Subject.        ........  72 

SECTION  I.— Purity. 

1.  Foreign  Words,  ..........    73 

2.  Obsolete  Words,  and  New  Words,       ......  73 

3.  Words  without  Proper  Authority,  .          .          .          .          .          .  .76 

Use  the  Law  of  Language,  ........  76 

SECTION  II.— Propriety. 

Difference  between  Propriety  of  Diction  and  Purity,      .          .          .  .78 

Means  of  Attaining  Propriety,       .......  79 

Examples  of  Words  Used  Improperly,         .          .          .          .          .  .79 

SECTION  III.— Precision. 

Meaning  of  Precision,      .........    83 

Examples  of  Words  not  Used  Precisely,            .....  83 

The  Study  of  Synonyms, 84 

Books  on  the  Subject  of  Synonyms,        ......  84 

Examples  of  Synonyms,  .........    84 

Appendix  : 

Campbell's  Essay  on  Use  as  the  Law  of  Language,  ....  89 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Sentences. 


Division  of  the  Subject, 


PAGE 

.    92 


PART  I.— Kinds  of  Sentences. 

Section  1.  Periodic  Sentences,  ........    92 

Section  2.  Loose  Sentences, ........         93 

Examples  of  each,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .94 

Section  3.  Balanced  Sentences,      .......         98 

Examples,  ..........    99 

Use  of  the  Balanced  Sentence,    ......       100 

Section  4.  Short  and  Long  Sentences,  .  .  .  .  .  .100 

Rule  in  Regard  to  the  Use  of  the  Various  Kinds  of  Sentences,        101 


PART  II. — Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Sentences. 


RULE  I.  —  Clearness. 

Section  1.  Position  of  the  Adverb.  . 

Section  2.  Position  of  Adverbial  Clauses, 

Section  3.  Squinting  Construction,  . 

Section  4.  Use  of  the  Pronouns, . 
Summary  of  Rule  I.,  . 
RULE  II.  — Emphasis. 

Section  1.  The  Principal  Subject, 

Disposal  of  Subsidiary  Matter, 

Section  2.  The  Principal  Predicate, 

Principal  Words  not  to  be  Entangled, 
RULE  III. -Unity. 

General  Illustration  of  Unity, 

Section  1.  Change  of  Subject  to  be  Avoided, 

Section  2.  Crowding  Together  Things  Unconnected 

Section  3.  Management  of  Relative  Clauses, 

Section  4.  Parentheses,       .... 

Section  5.  Supplementary  Clauses,   .  . 

RULE  IV.  — Strength. 

Section  1.  Redundant  Words, 

Section  2.  Use  of  Very,  etc.,   .... 

Section  3.  Words  of  Connection  and  Transition, 

Section  4.  Bringing  to  a  Conclusion, 

Section  5.  Contrasted  Changes,    . 

Section  6.  Climax,         ..... 
RULE  V.  — Harmony. 

Section  1.  Prevalence  of  Pleasant  Sounds,     . 

Section  2.  Accents  at  Convenient  Intervals, 

Section  3.  Cadence  at  the  Glow, 

Section  4.  Adapting  the  Sound  to  the  Sense, 


104 
106 
109 
112 
117 

117 
119 
120 
121 

123 
125 
125 
126 
127 
128 

131 
133 
133 
188 
137 
137 

140 

II  -1 
143 
144 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Figures. 

PAGE 

Relation  of  the  Subject  to  what  Precedes,  .  .  .  .  .  .154 

Definition  of  Figures,  ........        154 

Origin  and  Use  of  Figures,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .156 

SECTION  I.— Simile. 

Why  Similes  Please, 157 

Object  of  Simile,         .........        158 

Rule  1.  The  Resemblance  should  not  be  too  Near  and  Obvious,      .  .  159 

Rule  2.  The  Resemblance  should  not  be  too  Remote,         .  .  .159 

Rule  3.  Should  not  be  Drawn  from  Objects  with  which  Ordinary  Readers 

are  Unacquainted,      ........  160 

Rule  4.  Should  not  be  Drawn  from  what  is  Mean  and  Low,       .  .       160 

Rule  5.  Should  not  be  Stilted, 161 

Rule  6.  Should  not  be  Used  in  Cases  of  Strong  Passion,     .  .  .161 

SECTION  II. —  Metaphor. 

Difference  between  Metaphor  and  Simile,  .          .          .          .          .  .162 

Rule  1.  Metaphorical  and  Literal  should  not  be  Mixed,     ...  164 

Rule  2.  One  Metaphor  should  not  be  Mixed  with  Another,    .          .  .165 

Rule  3.  Metaphors  should  not  be  Crowded  Together,          ...  165 

Rule  4.  Metaphors  should  not  be  Multiplied  to  Excess,           .          .  .166 

Rule  5.  Metaphors  should  not  be  Carried  too  Far,    ....  166 

SECTION  III.— Allegory. 

Relations  of  Allegory  to  Metaphor  and  Simile,  .  .  .  .167 

Allegory,  Parable,  and  Fable,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .167 

SECTION  IV.  — Antithesis. 
Definition  of  the  Subject,  ........  169 

Rule  in  Regard  to  Antithesis,       .......        169 

SECTION  V.  — Epigram. 
Relation  of  Epigram  to  Antithesis,    .  .  .  .  .  .    •      .  171 

SECTION  VI.  —  Metonymy. 
Definitions  and  Illustrations  of  the  Subject,  .  .  .  .  .171 

SECTION  VII.— Synecdoche. 

Explanation  of  the  Subject,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .172 

SECTION  VIII. —  Interrogation. 
Definition,    ...........  173 

Uses  and  Peculiarities,         ........        173 

SECTION  IX.  — Exclamation. 

Explanation  of  the  Figure,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .174 


X  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  X.— Apostrophe.  pAGB 

Definition  and  Examples,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .174 

SECTION  XI. —Personification. 

Special  Facilities  in  English,   .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .175 

SECTION  XII.  — Hyperbole. 
Caution  in  Regard  to  its  Use 177 

SECTION  XIII.  — Irony. 
Its  Uses, 178 

CHAPTER  V. 
Special  Properties. 

Division  of  the  Subject 197 

SECTION  I.  — Sublimity. 

I.  What  Constitutes  Sublimity. 

1.  Vastness,           .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .198 

2.  Power 198 

3.  Awfulness 200 

4.  Obscurity 200 

5.  Loudness  of  Sound,  .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .201 

6.  Moral  Greatness,  ........  201 

II.  The  Sublime  in  Writing. 

1.  Sublimity  of  Subject, .202 

2.  Vivid  Conception  of  the  Strong  Points 203 

3.  Suppression  of  Belittling  Details,            .           .           .           .  .203 

4.  Simplicity  and  Conciseness  of  Expression,           ...  204 

SECTION  II.— Beauty. 

I.  Beauty  in  General. 

1.  Color  as  an  Element  of  Beauty 207 

2.  Figures,  etc.,       M  ...     "        *  .....       207 

3.  Motion, 208 

4.  Complex  Beauty, ........        209 

5.  Beauty  of  Countenance,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .209 

6.  Moral  Beauty 210 

II.  The  Beautiful  in  Writing. 

1.  Beauty  of  Subject 211 

2.  Beauty  of  Expression,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .211 

3.  Conciseness  not  Necessary,  .  .  .  .  .  .211 

SECTION    III.  — Wit. 

Ingredients  of  Wit 219 

Definition  of  Wit, 211 

Examples,    ...........  213 

Pun-a  Species  of  Wit 214 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

Examples  of  Pun,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -214 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Wit,  .....       216 

SECTION  V.— Humor. 

Ingredients  of  Humor,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .217 

Humor  Something  Characterislic,  ......       218 

Humor  Kind-hearted 219 

Difference  between  Humor  and  Wit,       ......       219 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Versification. 

The  Foundation  of  Verse,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -220 

The  State  of  the  Question, 220 

Why  a  Thought  in  Verse  Pleases  more  than  the  same  in  Prose,      .  .  221 

Action  of  the  Vocal  Organs,  .......        222 

Vocal  Impulse,       ..........  222 

Strong  and  Light  Impulses,  .......       222 

Time  between  Impulses,  ........  222 

Accent  the  Paramount  Law,  .......       223 

Foundation  and  Nature  of  Rhythm,  .  .  .  .  .  .224 

The  Conclusion 225 

SECTION  I.— Rhythm. 

Definition  of  Terms,        .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .225 

Kinds  of  Feet, 226 

Kinds  and  Varieties  of  Verse,  .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .227 

Tables  of  Iambic  and  Trochaic  Verse,   ......  229 

Tables  of  Anapaestic  and  Dactylic  Verse,     .          .          .          .          .  .230 

SECTION  II.— Rhyme. 

Origin  of  Rhyme, 231 

Definition 232 

Single,  Double,  and  Triple  Rhymes,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .233 

Alliteration  as  a  Species  of  Rhyme,        ......        233 

True  Rhyme 234 

Conditions  of  Single  Rhyme, 234 

Conditions  of  Double  and  Triple  Rhyme,   .  .  .  .  .  .235 

Place  of  the  Rhyming  Word 236 

Sectional  Rhymes,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .237 

SECTION  III.— Blank  Verse. 

Usual  Form, 237 

Other  Forms  of  Blank  Verse, 238 

SECTION  IV.— Mixed  Verse. 

English  Verse  Different  from  Classic,           .          .          .          .          .  .238 

Mixed  Verse  in  English,     ........  239 

English  Hexameters,       .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .239 

Conditions  of  Success  to  Mixed  Verse,  ......  239 


Xii  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  V.— Stanzas.  PAGE 

Rhythm-Royal,  or  Chaucerian  Stanza,         .  .  .  .  .  .240 

Spenserian  Stanza,      .........        241 

Sonnet  Stanza,       ..........  241 

Psalm  and  Hymn  Stanzas,  ........       242 

Long,  Short,  Common,  and  Particular  Metres,        .  .  .  .  .243 

SECTION  VI.— Modern  Verse  Accentual. 

Essential  Difference  between  Ancient  Verse  and  Modern,        .          .  .247 

Present  State  of  English  Verse,     . 248 

SECTION  VII.— Elision. 

Mistake  of  the  Older  Critics, 249 

Requirements  of  Modern  Verse  in  Regard  to  Elision,         .  .  .249 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Poetry. 


Defective  Definitions, 261 

Poetry  must  be  in  the  Form  of  Verse,   ......       261 

The  Matter  must  be  Poetical  in  Essence,    .  .  .  .  .  .261 

Definition  of  Poetry,  .  .  . 263 

SECTION  I.— Epic  Poetry. 

1.  The  Subject  must  be  Great  and  Heroic, 263 

2.  It  must  have  Unity, 264 

3.  It  must  have  a  Hero,  .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .265 

4.  It  must  have  Many  Actors  and  a  Complex  Plot,   ....  265 

5.  It  must  be  Serious  and  Earnest^    .          .          .          .          .          .  .265 

6.  The  Story  must  be  Interesting,            ......  265 

SECTION  II.— Dramatic  Poetry. 

Difference  between  the  Drama  and  the  Epic,        .  .  .  .  .266 

Unities  of  the  Drama,  .  . 267 

Tragedy  and  Comedy,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .267 

Farce,  Opera,  and  Melodrama,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .268 

SECTION  III.— Lyric  Poetry. 

1.  Sacred  Odes— Hymnic  Poetry 269 

2.  Heroic  Odes, 269 

3.  Moral  Odes 269 

4.  Amatory  Odes 269 

5.  Comic  and  Bacchanalian  Songs,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .270 

6.  Sonnets 270 

SECTION  IV.— Elegiac  Poetry. 
Character  and  Form, 270 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

SECTION  V.  — Pastoral  Poetry.  PAGE 

Its  Character,  ..........  271 

Eclogues,  ..........       271 

Idyls, 271 

SECTION    VI.— Didactic  Poetry. 

Its  Character,     ..........       272 

Meditative  Poetry,  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  .272 

Satire  and  Lampoon,  .........       272 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Prose  Composition. 

Definition  and  Varieties,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .273 

SECTION   I.— Letters. 

An  Important  Species  of  Composition,     .  .  .  .  .  .273 

What  is  Required  in  a  Letter,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .274 

The  Forms  to  be  Observed  in  Letter- Writing,  .....       275 

I.  The  Heading. 

1.  The  Place  of  Writing, 275 

2.  The  Time  of  Writing,  or  Date, 276 

II.  The  Address. 

The  Military  Form, 277 

Ordinary  Letters, 277 

Business  Letters,  ........       278 

III.  The  Subscription. 

Signing  Initials 278 

Married  Women  and  Widows,     ......       279 

Arrangement  of  the  Subscription,  ' .  .  .  .  .  .280 

IV.  The  Superscription. 

Why  Important,         .  .     '      .  .  .  .  .  .280 

1.  The  Name,       .  .  .  .  .  ...  .  .280 

2.  The  Title, 281 

3.  The  Residence, 282 

SECTION   II.— Diaries. 

Essential  Character,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  ...       283 

The  Style, 283 

Importance  of  Accuracy  in  Dates,  ......       284 

SECTION   III.— News. 

Literary  Character  of  News,      ........  284 

Things  to  be  Aimed  at  in  News- Writing,  .....       285 

1.  Accuracy,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .285 

2.  Condensation,        ........       286 

3.  Perspicuity 286 

2 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

SECTION   IV.—  Editorials.  PAGE 

A  High  Order  of  Composition,       .......       287 

Difference  between  Editorials  and  News,    .  .  .  .  .  .288 

SECTION   V.  — Reviews. 

Character,           ..........  288 

Macaulay  as  a  Reviewer,           .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .290 

Other  Reviewers, 290 

SECTION   VI.— Essays. 

Different  from  Reviews,  ........  291 

Present  Mode  of  Publication,         . 291 

SECTION  VII.— Treatises. 

How  Different  from  Essays,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .292 

Text-Books, 293 

SECTION  VIII.— Travels. 

Compared  with  Diaries,         ........  293 

Accuracy  Important,        .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .293 

Other  Qualities, 293 

SECTION   IX.— History. 

Its  General  Character,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .294 

Unity  of  Subject,  .  294 

Chronological  Order,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  295 

General  Qualities  of  Historical  Narration,  .....       295 

Gravity  of  Style, 296 

Delineation  of  Characters,  ........       297 

Sound  Morals  to  be  Enforced,    ........  297 

Annals,  Memoirs,  Biographies,  etc.,         ......       297 

SECTION  X.— Fiction. 

Definition .  .  .  .298 

Its  Prevalence 299 

Historical  Novels 299 

Delineation  of  Character,      ..;.....       300 

Effects  of  Novel-Reading 300 

Religious  Fictions  —  Sunday-School  Books,       .....       300 

SECTION   XI.— Discourses. 

Orations .  .  .  .301 

Addresses,         ....  ......       301 

Sermons,       ...........  302 

Lectures,  ..........       302 

Speeches,      ...........  302 

Rules  for  Constructing  Discourses,  ......       303 

1.  Unity 303 

2.  Adaptation  to  the  Audience,  ......       303 

3.  Symmetry  of  Parts,         .  . 304 


CONTENTS.  XV 


PART  II. 


>&& 


INVENTION. 

Definition  of  Invention, .........  306 

Method  Adopted  in  the  Present  Work 307 

CHAPTER  I. 
On  Objects. 

Composition  on  Paper,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .808 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,     .......       310 

CHAPTER  II. 
On  Transactions. 

Composition  on  Going  to  School,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .312 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,    .......       314 

CHAPTER  III. 
On  Abstract  Subjects. 

Composition  on  Fear,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .315 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,    .....  317 

CHAPTER  IV. 
On  Imaginary  Subjects. 

Compositions  on  the  Man  in  the  Moon,       .  .  .  .  .  .319 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,     .......       324 

CHAPTER  V. 

Personal  Narratives. 

Compositions  on  How  I  Spent  my  Vacation,         .  .  .  .  .326 

Composition  on  a  Trip  by  Railroad,        ......       330 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .334 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Descriptions. 

PAGE 

Our  Cat  and  the  Rabbit,  Described,    . 336 

The  Scene  from  Trenton  Bridge,  Described,     .....       338 
Other  Subjects  for  Description,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .340 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Miscellaneous  Subjects. 

Recapitulation, 341 

General  List  of  Subjects  for  Compositions, 342 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
On  Proof-Reading. 

Correcting  Compositions,           .          .          .          .          .          .          .  .347 

An  Example  of  a  Proof-Sheet,      .......  348 

Explanations  of  the  Corrections,        .          .          .          .          .          .  .349 

An  Example  of  a  Proof-Sheet  Corrected,         .....  350 

CHAPTER  IX. 

On  the  Study  of  the  English  Language,      .  .  .  .  .  .851 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX .  380 


Introduction. 

1.  Rhetoric  is  the  science  which  treats  of  discourse. 

2.  By  Discourse  is  meant  any  expression  of  thought  by 
means  of  language. 

3.  Discourse  may  be  either  oral  or  written. 

Note  1.  Rhetoric  referred  originally  to  spoken  discourse  only. 
This  is  shown  by  the  etymology  of  the  word,  the  original  Greek 
prrropLKT]  [rhetorihe)  meaning  the  art  of  speaking,  from  prjrwp  [rhetor), 
a  speaker.  But  since  the  invention  of  printing,  and  the  general 
diffusion  of  books,  speaking  forms  only  a  part  of  the  means  by 
which  man  discourses,  or  makes  known  in  language  his  thoughts  to 
others.  While,  therefore,  for  convenience,  the  term  Rhetoric  is 
retained,  the  science  itself  is  extended  in  its  scope,  and  is  made 
to  embrace  every  kind  of  discourse,  whether  oral  or  written. 

Note  2.  Rhetoric,  as  thus  defined,  includes  both  "Written  Com- 
position and  Oratory ;  but  the  two  may  with  great  convenience  and 
propriety  be  treated  of  separately.  In  the  present  treatise,  there- 
fore, all  that  part  of  the  subject  which  is  peculiar  to  Oratory, 
including  Vocal  Delivery,  is  omitted,  and  the  work  is  limited 
strictly  to  written  discourse.  Rhetoric,  as  a  subject  of  study  in 
schools,  has  long  since  practically  become  thus  limited  in  its  scope, 
while  Oratory  has  branched  off  into  a  separate  study. 

Note  3.  Rhetoric  is  closely  allied,  on  the  one  side,  to  Grammar, 
which  determines  the  laws  of  language,  and,  on  the  other,  to  Logic, 
which  determines  the  laws  of  thought. 

2*  B  17 


18  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Note  4.  In  establishing  principles  and  rules  for  conducting  dis- 
course, Rhetoric  assumes  as  true  whatever  is  determined  by  the 
sciences  of  Grammar  and  Logic.  A  discourse,  though  rhetorical 
in  other  respects,  will  lose  much  of  its  effect,  if  the  expression  is 
nngrammatical  or  the  thought  illogical.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, an  expression  may  violate  no  rule,  either  of  Grammar  or  of 
Logic,  and  yet  be  faulty.  Rhetoric,  in  other  words,  has  require- 
ments of  its  own,  in  addition  to  those  of  Grammar  and  Logic. 

Note  5.  In  treating  of  discourse,  we  naturally  divide  the  subject 
into  two  parts  —  that  which  considers  the  matter,  or  thought  to  be 
expressed,  and  that  which  considers  the  mode  of  expression.  The 
former  of  these  is  usually  treated  under  the  head  of  Invention,  the 
latter  under  the  head  of  Style. 

Note  6.  Theoretically,  it  is,  perhaps,  more  philosophical  to  treat 
first  of  Invention,  and  then  of  Style.  It  seems  but  natural  that  we 
should  first  find  out  what  to  say,  and  then  study  how  to  say  it.  But 
there  are  practical  conveniences  in  following  a  different  order. 
Invention  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  subject,  requiring  no 
little  maturity  of  mind  on  the  part  of  the  learner.  Style,  on  the 
other  hand,  connects  itself  closely  with  grammatical  studies,  which 
always  precede  the  study  of  Rhetoric,  and  it  has  many  details  of  a 
simple  and  positive  character,  about  which  the  judgment  of  pupils 
may  be  exercised,  long  before  they  can  enter  with  profit  upon  the 
process  of  original  thought  required  by  Invention.  In  the  present 
treatise,  therefore,  Style  is  considered  first,  and  Invention  after- 
wards. 

Note  7.  While  the  general  subject  of  Invention  is  thus  placed 
last,  the  simpler  kinds  of  exercises  in  it  are  clearly  suitable  to  those 
who  are  just  beginning  the  study  of  Rhetoric.  It  is,  therefore, 
recommended  to  the  student  to  take  up  some  of  these  simpler  ex- 
ercises at  the  same  time  that  he  begins  the  study  of  Style,  and  thus 
to  carry  on  the  study  of  the  two  portions  of  the  book  contempora- 
neously ;  in  other  words,  to  practise  Invention  while  studying  Style. 

4.  Rhetoric  is  divided  into  two  parts ;  namely,  Part  I., 
Style  ;  Part  II.,  Invention. 


Part  I 


STYLE. 

1.  Style  is  that  part  of  Rhetoric  which  treats  of  the  mode 
of  expression. 

Note  1.  Any  verbal  expression  of  thought,  even  in  its  lowest  and 
plainest  forms,  brings  us  within  the  domain  of  Grammar.  But, 
beyond  the  bare  expression  of  the  meaning,  we  can  conceive  of  it 
as  being  uttered  awkwardly  or  elegantly,  plainly  or  figuratively, 
concisely  or  diffusely,  and  in  a  great  variety  of  other  ways ;  and  the 
consideration  of  these  various  methods  of  expression  takes  us  at 
once  beyond  the  region  of  Grammar,  and  brings  us  into  that  of 
Rhetoric. 

Note  2.  Style  is  sometimes  used  in  a  more  restricted  sense, 
namely,  to  indicate  certain  special  kinds  of  writing  and  speaking. 
But  there  is  no  necessity  for  limiting  the  meaning  of  the  word  in 
this  way.  Webster  very  properly  defines  Style  to  be  the  "  mode  of 
expressing  thought  in  language,  whether  oral  or  written,"  and  in 
this  broad  sense  the  word  is  used  in  the  present  treatise. 

Note  3.  The  word  Style  comes  from  the  Latin  stylus,  a  small 
steel  instrument  used  by  the  Romans  for  writing  on  waxen  tablets. 
The  stylus  was  to  the  Roman  writer  what  the  pen  is  to  us,  and  be- 
came, by  an  easy  metaphor,  the  means  of  expressing  any  one's 
method  of  composition,  just  as  we  now,  by  a  like  metaphor,  speak 
of  a  gifted  pen,  a  ready  pen,  meaning  thereby  a  gifted  or  a  ready 
author. 

19 


20  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Note  4.  Style  is  concerned  equally  with  Prose  and  Poetry,  and 
with  the  various  figures  of  speech  which  are  common  to  both ;  it  is 
coextensive  with  the  whole  range  of  composition  and  of  discourse, 
both  oral  and  written.  To  find  out  what  to  say  is  the  business  of 
Invention ;  but  the  moulding  of  the  materials  thus  furnished  be- 
longs to  Style.  It  includes  in  its  scope  whatever,  in  the  arts  and 
contrivances  of  speech,  can  make  the  expression  of  thought  more 
effective.  In  its  lower  forms,  it  treats  of  Punctuation  and  the  use 
of  Capitals,  and  of  other  contrivances  of  a  mechanical  sort,  which 
help  to  give  clearness  to  the  meaning,  while  in  its  higher  forms  it 
enters  upon  the  region  of  the  Imagination  and  the  Passions,  and 
deals  with  questions  of  Taste  and  Fancy. 

2.  The  various  topics  included  in  Style  are  discussed  under 
the  following  heads  :  1,  Punctuation  and  Capitals;  2,  Dic- 
tion ;  3,  Sentences  ;  4,  Figures  ;  5,  Special  Properties 
of  Style  ;  6,  Versification  ;  7,  Poetry  ;  8,  Prose  Com- 
position. 


CHAPTER  I. 
PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS. 

1.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  discourse  into 
sections  by  means  of  points,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
grammatical  connection  and  dependence,  and  of  making  the 
sense  more  obvious. 

2.  Capitals  are  used  for  a  like  purpose,  and,  therefore, 
they  may  with  propriety  be  treated  of  at  the  same  time  with 
the  Points. 

Note  1.  That  the  sense  is  made  more  obvious  to  the  eye  by  the  use  of  points 
and  capitals  will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  will  make  the  experiment.  Take 
almost  any  familiar  sentence,  and  write  it  as  the  ancients  used  to  write,  that  is, 
unpointed  and  unspaced,  and  with  the  letters  either  all  small  or  all  capital,  and 
it  will  require  no  little  skill  and  patience  to  decipher  the  meaning.  A  reader  not 
apprised  of  what  had  been  done  would  be  apt  to  mistake  the  sentence  for  some- 
thing in  a  foreign  language.  Here  is  an  example,  first  in  capitals,  next  in  small 
letters,  and  then  in  the  form  now  in  use : 

READINGMAKETHAFULLMANCONFERENCEAREADYMANWRITINGAN 
EXACTMAN. 

readingmakethafullmanconferenceareadymanwritinganexactman. 

Reading  maketh  a  full  man ;  conference,  a  ready  man ;  writing,  an  exact  man. 

Note  2.  The  word  Punctuation  is  from  the  Latin  punctum,  a  point.  The 
points  now  used  in  writing  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Aristophanes,  a 
grammarian  of  Alexandria,  about  two  and  a  half  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  introduced  some  of  the  marks  now  used  in  punctuation.  But  the  points 
did  not  come  into  common  use  until  the  time  of  Aldus  Manutius,  a  learned 
printer  of  Venice,  who  reduced  the  matter  to  a  system  about  the  year  1500,  and, 
by  the  extreme  beauty  and  accuracy  of  his  editions,  gave  it  general  currency. 

Note  3.  The  word  Capital  is  from  the  Latin  caput,  a  head.  The  letters  of  the 
word  or  words  forming  the  caput,  heading,  or  title  of  a  discourse,  are  called  ^ad- 
letters,  or  capitals. 

21 


22  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Note  4.  The  capital  letters  were  those  first  Invented,  and  were  in  use  many 
centuries  before  the  invention  of  the  small  letters.  The  oldest  manuscripts  now 
in  existence,  some  of  which  date  as  far  back  as  the  third  century,  are  written 
entirely  in  capitals,  and  are  likewise  almost  without  points,  and  without  spacing 
between  the  words.  The  small  letters  were  first  introduced  about  the  seventh 
century ;  but,  for  some  time  after  the  introduction  of  the  small  letters,  the  capi- 
tals continued  to  be  used  much  more  than  they  are  now. 

Note  5.  It  is  sometimes  stated,  in  works  on  Rhetoric  and  Grammar,  that  the 
points  are  for  the  purposes  of  elocution,  and  directions  are  given  to  pupils  to 
pause  a  certain  time  at  each  of  the  stops.  It  is  true  that  a  pause  required  for 
elocutionary  purposes  does  sometimes  coincide  with  a  grammatical  point,  and 
so  the  one  aids  the  other.  Yet  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  first  and  main 
end  of  the  points  is  to  mark  grammatical  divisions.  Good  elocution  often  re- 
quires a  pause  where  there  is  no  break  whatever  in  the  grammatical  continuity, 
and  where  the  insertion  of  a  point  would  make  nonsense.  For  instance,  the 
most  common  of  all  the  elocutionary  pauses  is  that  made  for  the  purpose  of  em- 
phasis. If  we  wish  to  make  a  word  emphatic,  the  way  to  do  so,  except  in  rare 
cases,  is  not  to  pronounce  it  very  loudly,  but  to  make  a  pause  after  it.  This 
pause  calls  attention  to  the  word,  and  with  only  a  slight  change  in  the  tone  of 
the  voice  makes  the  word  emphatic.  The  insertion  of  a  point  to  mark  this  pause 
would  often  detach  adjectives  from  their  nouns,  nominatives  from  their  verbs, 
and  would,  in  many  other  equally  absurd  ways,  break  up  the  connection  of  the 
sentence.  The  following  line  from  Shakespeare  requires  after  "words"  and 
"  thoughts "  a  pause  equal  to  that  ordinarily  assigned  to  a  semicolon,  perhaps 
equal  to  that  assigned  to  a  period. 

"  My  words  fly  up,  my  thoughts  remain  below." 

If  a  point  were  inserted  to  mark  this  pause,  the  whole  meaning  of  the  sentence 
would  be  obscured.  Thus  :  "  My  words ;  fly  up,  my  thoughts ;  remain  below." 
If  it  were  desirable  to  mark  these  elocutionary  pauses  by  typographical  arrange- 
ments, perhaps  the  best  way  would  be  to  do  it  by  spacing.    Thus : 

"  My  words       fly  up,  my  thoughts       remain  below." 

3.  The  principal  grammatical  points  are  five,  namely, 

1.  The  Comma,       , 

2.  The  Semicolon,     ; 

3.  The  Colon,       : 

4.  The  Period, 

5.  The  Interrogation,  ? 

Note.  These  points  have  various  degrees  of  disjunctive  force,  in  separating 
the  parts  of  a  sentence  from  each  other.  This  force  may  be  expressed  briefly,  as 
follows :  The  Period,  except  when  used  for  an  abbreviation,  marks  the  greatest 
separation  of  all,  the  parts  between  which  it  is  placed  being  thereby  rendered 
grammatically  entirely  independent  of  each  other ;  the  Colon  marks  a  separa- 
tion somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  Period ;  the  Semicolon,  less  than  that  of  the 
Colon ;  and  the  Comma,  less  than  that  of  the  Semicolon.    The  Interrogation, 


PUNCTUATION— COMMA.  23 

though  usually  counted  as  equivalent  to  a  period,  may  be  equivalent  to  a  comma, 
a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  according  to  circumstances. 

4.  Besides  the  five  points  already  named,  several  other 
characters  are  used  for  similar  purposes.  The  most  common 
of  these  are  the  following : 

The  Exclamation,    ! 

The  Dash,  — 

The  Parenthesis,    (  ) 

The  Bracket,  [  ] 

The  Quotation,     "  " 

The  Apostrophe,      ' 

Note.  There  seems  no  more  necessity  for  saying  Interrogation  Point,  Excla- 
mation Point,  etc.,  than  for  saying  Comma  Point,  Semicolon  Point.  Custom, 
however,  still  obliges  us  to  use  the  expression  in  some  connections.* 


SECTION    I. 

The  Comma. 

The  Comma  marks  the  smallest  of  the  grammatical  divi- 
sions of  discourse  that  require  a  point. 

Note  1.  The  word  Comma,  Greek  Konna,  comma,  (from  kotttw,  copto,  to  cut,) 
denotes  something  cut  off,  a  section.  It  was  used  originally  to  denote,  not  the 
mark,  but  the  portion  of  the  sentence  thus  set  off.  The  same  is  true  of  the  words 
semicolon  and  colon.  They  meant  originally  portions  of  discourse,  not,  as  now, 
the  marks  by  which  those  portions  are  set  off.  Period,  Interrogation,  Paren- 
thesis, and  some  other  like  words,  are  used  in  both  senses ;  they  mean  portions 
of  discourse,  and  also  the  marks  by  which  those  portions  are  set  off. 

Note  2.  The  uses  of  the  comma,  which  are  very  numerous,  may  nearly  all  be 
reduced  to  two  heads.  1.  The  comma  is  used  to  set  off  by  itself  any  part  of  a 
sentence  which  is,  in  some  measure,  detached  in  meaning  from  the  rest,  and 
which  has  a  sort  of  grammatical  coherence  and  completeness  of  its  own.  2.  The 
comma  is  used  to  mark  an  ellipsis  of  some  kind.  Example:  "  Reading  maketh 
a  full  man ;  conference,  a  ready  man ;  writing,  an  exact  man."  Here  the  ellipsis 
of  the  verb  maketh,  after  "  conference,"  and  after  "  writing,"  is  indicated  by  the 
insertion  of  the  comma. 

Note  3.  Although  nearly  every  conceivable  instance  of  the  use  of  the  comma 
may  be  reduced  under  one  or  the  other  of  these  heads,  yet  for  practical  conven- 


24  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

ience  in  teaching  its  use,  the  various  instances  may  very  properly  be  classified, 
forming  a  series  of  independent,  though  connected  rules.* 

Rule  1.  Parenthetical  Expressions. —  Phrases  and  single 
words,  used  parenthetically,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Note  1.  Phrases  and  words  are  parenthetical  when  they  are  not  essential  to 
the  meaning  and  structure  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand.  Such  words 
and  phrases  belong  rather  to  some  unexpressed  thought  that  is  in  the  mind, 
than  to  the  thought  actually  expressed.  Thus,  "  It  is  mind,  after  all,  which  does 
the  work  of  the  world."  Here  the  phrase  "  after  all "  does  not  belong  to  the  verb 
"  does."  The  author  does  not  mean  to  say  that  mind  does  the  work  of  the  world, 
after  doing  everything  else.  In  like  manner,  it  does  not  modify  any  other  part 
of  the  expressed  sentence.  On  the  contrary,  it  belongs  to  some  unexpressed 
thought,  as  though  we  were  to  say,  "  After  all  that  can  be  claimed  for  other  agents, 
we  may  still  claim  for  the  mind,  that  it  does  the  work  of  the  world."  Sometimes 
the  parenthetical  word  or  phrase  refers  to  what  is  expressed  in  the  preceding 
sentence.  Thus,  "  The  danger  was  fully  explained  to  him.  His  passions,  how- 
ever, prevented  his  seeing  it."  Parenthetical  expressions,  then,  are  such  as  are 
not  necessary  to  the  structure  and  meaning  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand, 
if  taken  alone,  but  they  are  a  part  of  the  machinery,  so  to  speak,  by  which  the 
sentence  is  connected  with  some  preceding  sentence,  or  with  some  unexpressed 
sentence  or  thought  existing  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  They  are,  in  fact,  of  a 
conjunctional,  rather  than  of  an  adverbial  character. 

Note  2.  Many  phrases  and  clauses,  now  treated  as  parenthetical  expressions, 
and  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  were  formerly  inclosed 
by  marks  of  parenthesis.  The  difference  between  a  parenthesis  and  a  parentheti- 
cal expression  is  mainly  one  of  degree.  If  the  clause  or  expression,  thus  thrust 
into  the  body  of  a  sentence,  is  altogether  independent  in  character,  and  may  be 
omitted  without  disturbing  the  construction,  or  impairing  the  meaning,  it  is  still 
usually  inclosed  in  a  parenthesis.  But  commas  are  gradually  displacing  the 
parenthesis,  except  in  extreme  and  very  manifest  cases. 

Note  3.  Some  of  the  phrases  in  common  use,  which  require  to  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  are  the  following : 

in  short,  in  truth,  to  be  sure, 

in  fact,  as  it  were,  to  be  brief, 

in  fine,  as  it  happens,  after  all, 

in  reality,  no  doubt,  you  know, 

in  brief,  in  a  word,  of  course. 

When  these  parenthetical  expressions  come  at  the  beginning,  or  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence,  they  are,  of  course,  set  off  by  only  a  single  comma;  as,  "  To  be  sure, 
the  man  was  rather  conceited."  "  The  affair  passed  off  to  your  satisfaction,  no 
doubt."    See  foot-note  below. 

*  In  framing  these  rules,  it  is  customary  to  say,  of  certain  clauses  or  sections  of  a 
sentence,  that  they  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  meaning 
that  they  have  a  comma  before  and  a  comma  after.  In  some  instances,  the  section 
thus  designated  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  in  which  case  it  will  of 
course  have  no  comma  before  it;  or,  it  may  occur  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  in  which 
case  it  will  have  after  it,  not  a  comma,  but  a  period,  or  some  other  mark  greater  than 


PUNCTUATION— COMMA.  25 

Note  4.  Some  of  the  single  words  used  parenthetically,  and  ordinarily  re- 
quiring to  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

therefore,  namely,  moreover, 

then,  consequently,  surely, 

however,  indeed,  accordingly, 

perhaps,  too,  finally. 

Note  8.  Most  of  the  words  last  named  are  capable  of  two  constructions. 
They  may  belong  either  to  the  proposition  as  a  whole,  or  to  a  single  word  in  it. 
It  is  only  when  used  in  the  former  sense  that  they  require  to  be  set  off  by  commas. 
Two  or  three  examples  will  show  the  difference : 

On  this  statement,  then,  you  may  entirely  rely.  Then  I  believed  you,  now  I  do 
not. 

I  thought,  too,  that  you  were  discontented.    I  think  you  are  too  selfish. 

He  promised,  however,  to  set  about  reform  at  once.  However  much  he  prom- 
ised, it  was  but  little  that  he  performed. 

In  all  these  cases,  it  will  be  noticed  that  when  the  word  has  an  adverbial  char- 
acter, no  commas  are  required ;  but  when  the  word  becomes  connective  or  con- 
junctional, it  must  be  set  off  from  the  rest  by  commas. 

Note  6.  Some  words  not  of  a  parenthetical  character,  yet  when  standing  at 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  and  referring  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  rather 
than  to  a  particular  word,  are  set  off  by  a  comma;  as,  "Well,  do  as  you  like." 
"  Why,  this  is  all  wrong."  Some  of  the  words  thus  used  are  well,  why,  now,  yes, 
no,  nay,  again,  further,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  etc.  In  like  manner,  here  and  there, 
now  and  then,  when  used  to  introduce  contrasted  expressions,  are  set  off  by  a 
comma ;  as,  "  Here,  all  is  peace  and  quietness ;  there,  all  is  turmoil  and  strife." 

Examples  for  Practice.* 

1.  Gentleness  is  in  truth  the  great  avenue  to  real  enjoyment. 

2.  The  locomotive  bellows  as  it  were  from  the  fury  of  passion. 

a  comma.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  sections  designated  by  the  use 
of  the  comma  occur  in  the  body  of  the  sentence,  requiring  a  comma  before  and  a 
comma  after ;  and  the  rules  will  be  expressed  in  this  general  manner,  leaving  it  to  the 
common  sense  of  the  student  to  make  the  necessary  correction  in  the  case  of  sections 
thus  cut  off  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  and  without  stopping  to 
make  a  special  exception  under  each  rule. 

*To  the  Teacher.  1.  In  these  and  the  other  examples  for  practice  which  will 
be  given  throughout  the  book,  constant  vigilance  must  be  used  to  prevent  the  pupils 
from  markinff  the  corvectious  in  the  book.  A  book  so  marked  is  valueless  for 
the  purpose  of  study  or  instruction.  It  should  at  once  be  destroyed,  and  replaced  by 
a  new  copy  at  the  expense  of  the  offending  party.  A  stated  inspection  of  the  books, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  this  fraud,  is  as  necessary  a  part  of  the  teacher's  duty, 
as  it  is  to  examine  the  exercises  presented. 

2.  The  exercises  should  not  be  brought  in  written  out  beforehand,  but  should  in  all 
cases  be  written  in  the  class-room.  This  should  be  considered  an  essential  part  of  the 
recitation.  There  is  no  other  way  of  ascertaining  that  the  pupil  makes  the  correc- 
tions from  his  own  independent  judgment,  and  unless  he  does  this,  the  exercise  is  a 
mere  waste  of  time. 

3.  In  most  cases,  the  following  will  be  found  a  convenient  mode  of  procedure:  1. 
Let  the  students  seriatim  present  their  books  at  the  teacher's  desk  for  inspection, 
each  book,  as  presented,  being  open  at  the  page  containing  the  lesson,  and  let  the 
books  remain  there  piled,  until  the  lesson  is  over.  2.  Let  the  teacher  dictate  the  ex- 
amples, and  the  students  write  and  correct  them,  using  for  this  purpose  either  the 
blackboards,  slates,  or  paper,  according  to  circumstances. 

3 


26  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  He  knows  very  well  come  what  may  that  the  note  will  be  paid. 

4.  He  had  no  doubt  great  aptitude  for  learning  languages. 

5.  He  went  home  accordingly  and  arranged  his  business  in  the 
manner  described. 

6.  There  are  in  truth  only  two  things  to  be  considered  namely  his 
honesty  and  his  ability. 

7.  Come  then  and  let  us  reason  together. 

8.  No  nation  gin  short,  is  free  from  danger. 

9.  When, however,  the  hour  for  the  trial  came,  the  man  was  not 
to  be  found. 

10.  Why  those  are  the  very  books  you  want. 

11.  I  proceed  fourthly  to  prove  the  fact  from  your  own  admis- 
sions. 

12.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  great  danger  in  delay. 

13.  We  must  however. pay  some  respect  to  the  opinions  of  one 
who  has  had  so  large  an  experience. 

14.  I  have  shown  how  just  and  equitable  the  arrangement  is ;  and 
now  what  is  the  fair  conclusion  ? 

15.  Attend  first  to  the  study  of  arithmetic;  and  secondly, to  that 
of  algebra. 

16.  Feudalism  is  in  fact. the  embodiment  of  pride. 

17.  The  meeting, after  all  was  something  of  a  failure. 

18.  Besides  it  may  be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  you  in  your 
business. 

Rule  2.  Intermediate  Expressions. —  Clauses  and  expres- 
sions, not  parenthetical  in  character,  yet  so  placed  as  to  come 
between  some  of  the  essential  parts  of  the  sentence,  as,  for 
instance,  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  may  be  called 
intermediate  expressions,  and  they  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Note.— Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  these  intermediate  expressions 
from  such  as  are  properly  restrictive  in  their  character.  An  expression  is  re- 
strictive, when  it  limits  the  meaning  of  some  particular  word  to  some  particular 
sense.  Thus,  "  The  man  who  plants  the  field  ought  to  reap  the  harvest."  Here 
it  is  not  "  the  man  "  merely,  but  "  the  man  who  plants  the  field,"  that  is  the  sub- 
ject of  "  ought."  A  separation  of  the  relative  and  its  adjuncts  from  "  man."  by 
means  of  commas,  would  destroy  the  sense.  The  clause,  therefore,  is  restrictive. 
It  limits  the  meaning  to  that  particular  man.  But  suppose  I  say,  "Joseph,  who 
happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time,  saw  the  carriage  approach,  and,  in  an 
ecstasy  of  delight,  hastened  to  meet  it."    Here,  the  expression,  "  who  happt  0M  <1 


PUNCTUATION— COMMA.  27 

to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time,"  is-  properly  a  relative  clause,  and  comes  under 
Rule  4  (p.  28);  and  the  expression,  "in  an  ecstasy  of  delight,"  is  properly  inter- 
mediate, and  comes  under  Rule  2.  The  former  breaks  the  continuity  between 
the  subject  and  the  predicate ;  the  latter,  between  the  two  predicates. 


Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Classical  studies , regarded  merely  as  a  means  of  culture,  are 
deserving  of  general  attention. 

2.  The  sun  with  all  its  train  of  attendant  planets  is  but  a  small 
and  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  universe. 

3.  We  have  endeavored  ,in  the  preceding  paragraph,  to  show  the 
incorrectness  of  his  position. 

4.  Nature  ^through  all  her  works  7delights  in  variety. 

5.  The  speaker  proceeded ^with  the  greatest  animation,  to  depict 
the  horrors  of  the  scene. 

6.  Christianity  is^in  a  most  important  sense,  the  religion  of  sor- 
row. 

y  7.  A  man  of  great  wealth,may  for  want  of  education  and  refine- 
ment of  manner,  be  a  mere  cipher  in  society. 

8.  Truth  Jike  gold  ,shines  brighter  by  collision. 

9.  Charity,  on  whatever  side  we  contemplate  it ,  is  one  of  the 
highest  Christian  graces. 

10.  One  hour  a  day  ^steadily  given  to  a  particular  study,  will 
bring  in  time  large  accumulations. 

Rule  3.  Dependent  and  Conditional  Clanses. — Dependent 
and  conditional  clauses  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  a  comma,  or  by  commas. 

Note  1.  Clauses  are  dependent,  when  one  of  them  is  subject  to  the  other  for 
the  completion  of  the  sense. 

Note  2.  One  of  the  dependent  clauses  usually  begins  with  if,  unless,  until, 
when,  where,  or  other  word  expressive  of  condition,  purpose,  cause,  time,  place, 
and  the  like ;  as,  "  If  you  would  succeed  in  business,  be  honest  and  industrious." 
"  The  tree  will  not  bear  fruit  in  autumn,  unless  it  blossoms  in  spring."  This 
conditional  word,  however,  is  not  always  expressed,  the  condition  being  some- 
times implied ;  as,  "  Breathe  into  a  man  an  earnest  purpose,  and  you  awaken  in 
him  a  new  power."  Here  the  meaning  is,  "If  you  breathe  into  a  man  an 
earnest  purpose,  you  will  awaken,"  etc. 

Note  3.  This  rule  does  not  apply  where  the  grammatical  connection  is  very 
close,  the  succeeding  clause  in  that  case  being  of  a  restrictive  character ;  as, 
"  You  will  reap  as  you  sow,"  "  You  may  go  when  you  please." 


28  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Note  4.  For  the  same  reason,  clauses  united  by  the  conjunction  thai  should 
not  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  "  He  went  abroad  thai  he  might  have  oppor- 
tunities for  study."  When,  however,  the  conjunction  is  removed  some  distance 
from  the  verb,  or  the  words  "  in  order "  precede,  so  that  the  grammatical  con- 
tinuity is  somewhat  broken,  the  comma  is  used ;  as,  "  He  went  through  the  prin- 
cipal provinces  of  the  empire,  that  he  might  see  for  himself  the  condition  of  the 
people."    "  He  went  abroad,  in  order  that  he  might  see  foreign  countries." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

Note.  In  punctuating  these  examples  and  those  which  are  to  follow,  insert 
not  oidy  the  points  required  by  the  rule  under  consideration,  but  also  those 
required  by  all  the  preceding  rules. 

1.  If  you  would  succeed  in  business  t  be  punctual  in  observing 
your  engagements. 

2.  The  days  in  December^  you  know.,  are  at  their  shortest,  and 
therefore,  you  must  rise  by  the  dawn  ^  if  you  would  have  much 
daylight. 

3.  The  reader  should  t  however?  as  he  proceeds  from  sentence  to 
sentencecmake  a  note  of  whatever  strikes  his  attention. 

4.  The  good  which  you  do , may  not  be  lost, though  it  may  be 
forgotten. 

5.  Good  deeds  though  forgotten,  are  not  in  every  case  lost. 

6.  John  went  last  year  to  Canton{  where  he  is  doing  ,they  say,  an 
excellent  business. 

V.  If  wishes  were  horses  beggars  might  ride. 

8.  Unless  you  bridle  your  tongue  ,you  will  assuredly  be  shut  out 
from  good  society. 

9.  We  should ,  in  all  probability,  be  ashamed  of  much  that  we 
boast  of  ( could  the  world  see  our  real  motive. 

10.  Attend  that  you  may  receive  instruction. 

11.  You  may  go  home  as  soon  as  you  like. 

12.  One  object  of  studying  Khetoric  is,  that  we  may  compose 
better. 

Questions.  Which  of  the  commas  used  in  Note  1  can  be  explained 
by  any  of  the  rules  given  thus  far?  —  which  in  Note  2? — which  in 
Note  3?  — which  in  Note  4? 

Rule  4.  Relative  Causes  not  Restrictive. — Clauses  intro- 
duced by  a  relative  pronoun,  if  not  restrictive,  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas.* 

*  The  teacher  should  at  thlfl  point  take  particular  pains  in  accustoming  the  stu- 
dent to  distinguish  clearly  and  promptly  between  clause*  which  are,  and  those 


PUNCTUA  TION—  COMMA.  29 

Note  1.  See  Note  under  Rule  2,  for  an  explanation  of  what  is  meant  by  re- 
strictive clauses. 

Note  2.  A  comma  should  be  put  before  the  relative,  even  when  used  restric- 
tively,  if  it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  word  or  a  phrase  inclosed  in  commas ; 
as,  "  Those  friends,  who,  in  the  native  vigor  of  his  powers,  perceived  the  dawn  of 
Robertson's  future  eminence,  were  at  length  amply  rewarded." 

Note  3.  A  comma  should  be  put  before  the  relative,  even  when  used  re- 
strictively,  if  several  words  intervene  between  it  and  its  grammatical  antece- 
dent ;  as,  "  He  preaches  most  eloquently,  who  leads  the  most  pious  life."  In  like 
manner,  of  which  and  of  whom,  even  when  used  restrictively,  are  preceded  by  a 
comma ;  as,  "  No  thought  can  be  just,  of  which  good  sense  is  not  the  ground- 
work." 

Note  4.  When  the  relative  has  for  its  antecedent  several  succeeding  nouns  or 
clauses,  it  should  be  separated  from  them  by  a  comma,  even  though  the  relative 
clause  is  restrictive.  Thus :  "  There  are  fruits  which  never  ripen."  "  There  are 
apples,  pears,  and  plums,  which  never  ripen."  Here,  if  the  comma  after 
"  plums  "  is  omitted,  the  fact  of  never  ripening  is  restricted  to  plums,  and  the 
meaning  is, "  There  are  apples,  there  are  pears,  and  there  are  unripening  plums.'' 
But,  by  inserting  the  comma,  the  restriction  is  made  to  refer  to  all  three  of  these 
objects. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  A  fierce  spirit  of  rivalry  t which  is  at  all  times  a  dangerous  pas- 
sion ?had  now  taken  full  possession  of  him. 

2.  The  spirit  which  actuated  him^was  a  thirst  for  vengeance. 

3.  The  man  of  letters ( who  has  constantly  before  him  examples 
of  excellence, ought  himself  to  be  a  pattern  of  excellence. 

4.  Books,which  are  the  repositories  of  knowledge, are  an  indispen- 
sable part  of  the  furniture  of  a  house. 

5.  Every  teacher  must  love  a  pupil  who  is  docile. 

6.  The  child  was  much  attached  to  his  teacher, who  loved  him 
dearly. 

7.  Patriotism  consists>4n  loving  the  country  in  which  we  were 
born. 

8.  The  eye  which  sees  all  things,  is  unseen  to  itself. 

9.  Death  is  the  season  which  tests  our  principles. 

10.  No  man  can  be  thoroughly  proficient  in  navigation, who  has 
never  been  at  sea. 

11.  The  father  of  Epic  poetry  is  Homer, who  has  given  us<in  the 
Iliad  the  story  of  Troy  divine. 

which  are  not,  restrictive.  "It  is  barbarous  to  injure  men  who  have  shown  us  a 
kindness."  Here  the  first  part  of  the  sentence  lays  down  a  proposition,  and  the 
relative  clause  restricts  the  meaning  to  certain  persons.  "Give  time  to  the  study 
of  nature,  whose  laws  are  all  deeply  interesting."  Here  the  relative  clause  is  not 
restrictive,  but  merely  presents  an  additional  thought. 

3* 


30  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

12.  The  powers  which  now  move  the  world  are  the  printing-press 
and  the  telegraph. 

13.  America,may  well  boast  of  her  Washington^whose  character 
and  fame  are  the  common  property  of  the  world. 

Questions.  Which  of  the  commas  used  in  Note  2  can  be  ex- 
plained by  any  of  the  rules  now  given?  —  which  in  Note  3?  — 
which  in  Note  4? —  which  in  the  foot-note? 

Rule  5.  A  Continued  Sentence  consisting  of  Co-ordinate 
Sentences. —  In  a  continued  sentence,  consisting  of  co-ordi- 
nate sentences,  the  several  co-ordinate  sentences,  if  simple  in 
construction,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

Note.  If,  however,  these  coordinate  members  are  complex  and  involved, 
especially  if  they  have  commas  within  themselves,  the  members  should  be 
separated  by  a  semicolon ;  as,  "  Crafty  men,  though  they  may  pretend  otherwise, 
contemn  studies ;  simple  men,  though  they  really  care  nothing  about  the  matter, 
yet  pretend  to  admire  them ;  wise  men  only  use  them." 


Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Crafty  men  contemn  studies,  simple  men  admire  them^and  wise 
men  use  them. 

2.  Speak  as  you  mean ,  do  as  you  profess,  perform  what  you 
promise. 

3.  Caesar  was  dead, the  senators  were  dispersed ^all  Rome  was  in 
confusion. 

4.  France  was  again  reduced  to  its  original  geographical  bounda- 
ries, and  England  tafter  a  struggle  of  twenty  years^was  undisputed 
mistress  of  the  seas. 

5.  Modern  engineering  spans  whole  continents^tunnels  alike  moun- 
tains and  rivers^and  dykes  out  old  ocean  himself. 

Rule  6.  Expressions  forming  a  Series. —  Grammatical  ex- 
pressions in  the  same  construction,  forming  a  series,  should 
be  separated  from  each  other,  and  from  what  follows,  by 
commas. 

Note  1.  A  grammatical  expression  is  a  collection  of  words,  having  some 
grammatical  dependence  and  connection,  but  not  containing  in  themselves  a 
predicate. 


PUNCTUATION— COMMA.  31 

Note  2.  If  the  expressions  are  brief,  and  there  are  but  two  of  them,  connected 
by  and,  or,  or  nor,  no  comma  between  them  is  needed ;  as,  "  Hard  study  and 
neglect  of  exercise  impair  the  health."  If,  however,  the  two  connected  expres- 
sions differ  much  in  form,  it  is  better  to  set  them  off  by  commas;  as,  "Hard 
study,  and  the  entire  absence  of  attention  to  the  matter  of  diet,  bring  on 


Note  3.  If  the  series  of  expressions  brings  the  sentence  to  a  close,  the  last  of 
them,  of  course,  is  not  followed  by  a  comma,  but  by  a  period  or  some  other  point 
greater  than  a  comma.    See  foot-note,  p.  24. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1,  Love  for  study,  a  desire  to  do  right  ;&nd  carefulness  in  the 
choice  of  friends,  are  important  traits  of  character. 

2."  To  cleanse  our  opinions  from  falsehood;  our  hearts  from  malig- 
nity and  our  actions  from  vice,  is  our  chief  concern. 

3.  Did  God  create  for  the  poor,  a  coarser  earth;a  thinner  air,  a 
paler  sky  ?  } 

4.  Infinite  space , endless  numbers. and  eternal  duration, fill  the 
mind  with  great  ideas. 

5.  On  the  rich  and  the  eloquent,on  nobles  and  priests  the  Puritans 
looked  down  with  contempt. 

Question.  What  commas  in  Rule  6,  and  in  Notes  1  and  2,  can  be 
explained  by  any  of  the  rules  thus  far  given  ? 

Kule  7.  Words  forming  a  Series. — Words  in  the  same  con- 
struction, forming  a  series,  admit  of  the  following  three  cases : 

1.  There  may  be  a  conjunction  between  each  two  of  the  words; 
as,  "  Industry  and  honesty  and  frugality  and  temperance  are  among 
the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  none  of  the  words  in  the  series 
are  to  be  separated  by  commas. 

2.  The  conjunction  may  be  omitted,  except  between  the  last  two 
of  the  words;  as,  "Industry,  honesty,  frugality,  and  temperance 
are  among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  all  the  words  are  to 
be  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

3.  The  conjunction  may  be  omitted  between  the  last  two  words, 
as  well  as  between  the  others;  as,  "Industry,  honesty,  frugality, 
temperance,  are  among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  not  only 
all  the  words  of  the  series  are  to  be  separated  from  each  other  by 
commas,  but  a  comma  is  to  be  inserted  also  after  the  last  word,  to 
separate  it  from  what  follows. 


32  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Note  1.  A  comma  is  not  in  any  case  to  be  inserted  after  the  last  word  of  a 
series,  if  what  follows  is  only  a  single  word ;  as,  "  The  good  will  form  hereafter 
stronger,  purer,  holier  ties." 

Note  2.  In  such  expressions  as  "A  beautiful  white  horse."  no  comma  should 
be  inserted  between  the  two  adjectives,  because  they  are  not  in  the  same  gram- 
matical construction.  "  White "  belongs  to  " horse "  merely.  "Beautiful"  be- 
longs properly  to  the  whole  expression  "  white  horse."  It  is  not  simply  the 
*'  horse,"  but  the  "  white  horse  "  that  is  said  to  be  beautiful. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  He  was  brave  and  pious  and  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

2.  He  was  brave/pious^nd  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

3.  He  was  brave  ^ious^patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

4.  He  was  a  brave, pious;patriotic  man. 

5.  Aright,  al  eft,  above^below, he  whirled  the  rapid  sword. 

6.  The  address  was  beautifully,elegantly7and  forcibly  written. 

7.  Can  flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

8.  Within,around,and  above  us,  we  see  traces  of  the  Creator's  hand. 

9.  We  are  fearfully, wonderfully  made. 

10.  The  sun,  the  moon^he  planets, the  stars,  revolve. 

11.  The  sun^he  moon,the  planets  ^the  stars^are  all  in  motion. 

12.  The  sun, the  moon?the  planets ^and  the  stars  are  all  in  motion. 

13.  Virtue  religion  is  the  one  thing  needful. 

14.  It  is  a  useful  accomplishment  to  be  able  to  read  write, spell, or 
cipher  with  accuracy. 

15.  Woe?woe?to  the  rider  that  tramples  them  down. 

16.  Aristotle  jHamiltonWhately,  and  McCosh  are  high  authorities 
in  logic. 

17.  The  ai^the  earth  the  water }teem  with  life. 

Question.  Which  of  the  commas  used  in  the  Rule  and  the  Notes 
can  be  explained  by  the  Rules  already  given  ? 

Rule  8.  Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs. — Words  or  phrases 
in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Anarchy  and  confusion  y poverty  and  distress ,  desolation  and 
ruin.are  the  consequences  of  civil  war. 

2.  Truth  and  integrity, kindness  and  modesty,  reverence  and  devo 
tion^were  all  remarked  in  him. 


PUNCTUATION— COMMA.  33 

3.  The  poor  and  the  rich,  the  weak  and  the  strong;the  young  and 
the  old  have  one  common  Father. 

4.  To  have  and  to  hold^for  better  for  worse,  for  richer  for  poorer ; 
in  sickness  and  in  health,  to  love  and  to  cherish. 

5.  Eating  or 'drinking  ^laboring  or  sleeping,  let  us  do  all  in  mod 
eration. 

Rule  9.  Nouns  in  Apposition. —  A  noun  in  apposition  to 
some  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  and  having  an  adjunct  con- 
sisting of  several  words,  should,  with  all  its  conuected  words, 
be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Note  1.  This  construction  is  sometimes  inverted,  the  noun  in  apposition.with 
its  adjuncts,  being  placed  first.  In  that  case,  this  preceding  noun  with  its  ad- 
juncts should  be  separated  from  the  main  noun  or  pronoun  by  a  comma ;  as, 
"  Himself  the  greatest  of  agitators,  Napoleon  became  the  most  repressive  of 
tyrants." 

Note  2.  Where  the  noun  put  in  apposition  stands  alone,  or  has  only  an  arti- 
cle before  it,  no  comma  is  required  between  said  noun  and  the  word  with  which 
it  is  in  apposition ;  as,  "  Paul  the  apostle  was  a  man  of  energy."  "  Mason 
Brothers." 

Note  3.  A  noun  following  another  as  a  synonym,  or  as  giving  additional 
illustration  to  the  thought,  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma 
before  and  after;  as,  "  The  word  Poet,  meaning  a  maker,  a  creator,  is  derived 
from  the  Greek." 

Note  4.  When  a  noun  is  predicated  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  it  is 
in  apposition,  no  comma  is  required  between  them;  as,  "They  have  just  elected 
him  Governor  of  the  State." 

Note  5.  After  several  words  containing  a  description  of  a  person  or  thing,  if 
the  name  of  the  person  or  thing  is  added,  it  should  be  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  greatest  of  poets  among  the  ancients,  Homer,  like 
the  greatest  among  the  moderns,  Milton,  was  blind." 

Note  6.  A  title,  whether  abbreviated  or  expressed  in  full,  when  annexed  to 
a  noun  or  pronoun,  must  be  set  off  by  commas ;  as.  "At  the  request  of  the  Rt.  Rev. 
W.  H.  Odenheimer,  D,D.,  the  ceremony  was  postponed." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  *Wetthe  people  of  the  United  States,  do  hereby  ordain  and  es- 
tablish this  Constitution. 

2.  Paul^the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles3was  a  man  of  energy. 

3.  Virgiltthe  chief  poet  among  the  Roraans^was  fond  of  rural  life. 

4.  The  poet  Shakespeare  is  now  considered  the  greatest  of  writers, 
ancient  or  modern. 

C 


34  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  Newton  the  great  mathematician  was  a  devout  believer  in 
Christianity. 

6.  Spenser,  the  author  of  the  Faery  Queen^  lived  in  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

7.  Strength, energy  is  what  you  want. 

8.  Plutarch  calls  anger  a  brief  madness. 

9.  The  chief  work  of  Chaucertthe  Canterbury  Tales  suggested  to 
Longfellow^he  plan  of  the  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

10.  John  Chapman<Doctor  of  Medicine.    John  Chapman, M.D. 

11.  The  wisest  of  the  ancients  Socrates  wrote  nothing. 

12.  A  man  of  prodigious  learning  he  was  a  pattern  of  modesty. 

Rule  10.  The  Vocative  Case. —  A  noun  in  the  vocative 
case,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  English,  the  Case  Independent,  to- 
gether with  its  adjunct  words,  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma,  or  commas. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Accept vmy  dear  young  friends^his  expression  of  my  regard. 

-  2.  I  beg  sirtto  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  favor. 

3.  I  rise  Mr.  President, to  a  point  of  order. 

4.  Show  pity, Lord!     0  Lord, forgive! 

5.  Remember  sir,  you  cannot  have  it. 

Rule  11.  The  Case  Absolute. —  A  clause  containing  the 
construction  known  as  the  case  absolute  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma,  or  commas. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Then  came  Jesus, the  doors  being  shut^nd  stood  in  the  midst. 

2.  A  state  of  ease  is^generally  speaking;more  attainable  than  a 
state  of  pleasure. 

3.  Shame  lost;all  virtue  is  lost. 

4.  His  father  being  dead,  the  prince  ascended  the  throne. 

5.  I  being  in  the  wayvthe  Lord  led  me  to  the  house  of  my  mas- 
ter's brother. 

Rule  12.  Inverted  Clauses. — An  inverted  clause,  standing 


PUNCTUATION— COMMA.  35 

at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma. 

Note  1.  The  infinitive  mood,  especially  when  used  to  express  object  or  design, 
is  often  inverted  in  this  way ;  as,  "  To  obtain  an  education,  he  was  willing  to 
make  sacrifices."  The  expressions  To  proceed,  to  conclude,  etc.,  when  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  a  paragraph,  and  referring  to  the  whole  of  it,  should  be  separated 
from  what  follows  by  a  colon. 

Note  2.  In  making  alphabetical  catalogues,  compound  names,  such  as  John 
Quiney  Adams,  are  usually  inverted,  that  is,  the  last  word  in  the  name,  being 
the  principal  one,  is  put  first,  and  is  then  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the 
name  by  a  comma;  as,  Adams,  John  Quiney. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Awkward  in  person,  he  was  ill  adapted  to  gain  respect. 

2.  Of  all  our  senses;sight  is  the  most  important. 

3.  To  supply  the  deficiency  he  resorted  to  a  shameful  trick. 

4.  Living  in  filth;the  poor  cease  to  respect  one  another. 

5.  To  confess  the  truth ^1  never  greatly  admired  him. 

Rule  13.  Ellipsis  of  the  Verb. —  In  continued  sentences, 
having  a  common  verb,  which  is  expressed  in  one  of  the 
members,  but  omitted  in  the  others,  the  ellipsis  of  the  verb 
is  marked  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man;  conference^  ready  man;  writing, 
an  exact  man. 

2.  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  ,the  better  artist. 

3.  Semiramis  built  Babylon;  Dido , Carthage ;  and Romulus^Rome. 

Rule  14.  Short  Quotations. — A  short  quotation,  or  a  sen- 
tence resembling  a  quotation,  should  be  preceded  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Patrick  Henry  began  his  celebrated  speech  by  saying  Jit  is 
natural  to  man  to  indulge  the  illusions  of  hope." 

2.  A  good  rule  in  education  is  "  Learn  to  be  slow  in  forming  your 
opinions." 

3.  I  say  "There  is  no  such  thing  as  human  perfection." 

4.  Some  one  justly  remarks  '{It  is  a  great  loss  to  lose  an  affliction." 


36  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

SECTION    II. 

The  Semicolon. 

The  Semicolon  marks  a  division  of  a  sentence  somewhat 
larger  and  more  complex  than  that  marked  by  a  comma. 

Note.  The  word  is  compounded  of  semi,  half,  and  colon,  and  means  a  division 
half  as  large  as  the  colon. 

Rule  1.  Subdivided  Members  in  Compound  Sentences. — 
When  a  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  and  these  mem- 
bers, or  either  of  them,  are  themselves  subdivided  by  com- 
mas, the  larger  divisions  of  the  sentence  should  be  separated 
by  a  semicolon. 

Note  1.  If  the  connection  between  these  members  is  close,  the  semicolon  is 
not  used.  The  word  "  when."  introducing  the  first  member,  indicates  this  kind 
of  close  connection,  and  prevents  ordinarily  the  use  of  the  semicolon.  "As," 
and  "  so,"  introducing  the  two  members,  indicate  a  comparatively  loose  connec- 
tion, and  authorize  the  use  of  the  semicolon,  if  the  other  conditions  exist;  as, 
"  As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved,  but  did  not  perceive  it  moving;  so 
our  advances  in  learning,  consisting  of  such  minute  steps,  are  perceivable  only 
by  the  distance." 

The  Rule  itself  furnishes  an  example  of  the  semicolon  omitted  in  a  sentence 
beginning  with  "when." 

Note  2.  When  the  members  are  considerably  complex,  they  are  sometimes 
separated  by  a  semicolon,  even  though  not  subdivided  by  commas;  as,  "So  sad 
and  dark  a  story  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any  work  of  fiction ;  and  we  are  little 
disposed  to  envy  the  moralist  who  can  read  it  without  being  softened." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Sparre  was  sulky  and  perverse  because  he  was  a  citizen  of  a 
republic.  Sparre  the  Dutch  general , was  sulky  and  perverse  because 
according  to  Lord  Mahon^  he  was  a  citizen  of  a  republic. 

2.  Bellasys  the  English  general  embezzled  the  stores,-  because  we 
suppose,  he  was  the  subject  of  a  monarchy.  Bellasys  embezzled  the 
stores  because, he  was  the  subject  of  a  monarchy. 

3.  The  most  ridiculous  weaknesses  seemed  to  meet  in  the  wretched 
Solomon  of  Whitehall;  pedantry  buffoonery  garrulity  low  curiosity 
the  most  contemptible  personal  cowardice. 

4.  Men  reasoned  better  for  example  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  than 
in  the  time  of  Egbert; and  they  also  wrote  better  poetry. 


PUNCTUATION— SEMICOLON.  37 

5.  Milton  was  like  Dante  a  statesman  and  a  lover  and  like  Dante 
he  had  been  unfortunate  in  ambition  and  in  love. 

6.  This  is  an  inconsistency,  which  more  than  anything  else/aises 
his  character  in  our  estimation  *  because  it  shows  how  many  private 
tastes  and  f  eelingshe  sacrificed,  in  order  to  do,  what  he  considered, 
his  duty  to  mankind. 

Kule  2.  Clauses  and  Expressions  having  a  Common  De- 
pendence.—  When  several  clauses  or  grammatical  expres- 
sions of  similar  construction  follow  each  other  in  a  series,  all 
having  a  common  dependence  upon  some  other  clause,  they 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  semicolon,  and  from  the 
clause  on  which  they  all  depend,  by  a  comma. 

Example:  "Philosophers  assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations; 
that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  knowledge  will  always  be 
progressive;  and  that  all  iuture  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries." 

Note.  If  the  clause  on  which  the  series  depends  comes  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence, it  is  separated  from  the  series,  sometimes  by  a  colon,  and  sometimes  by  a 
comma  followed  by  a  dash.  Thus :  That  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations ; 
that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  knowledge  will  always  be 
progressive ;  and  that  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries : 
these  are  among  the  assertions  of  philosophers. 

If  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field ;  of  wisdom  in  the  cabinet ;  of  the  purest 
patriotism ;  of  the  highest  integrity,  public  and  private ;  of  morals  without  a 
stain;  of  religious  feeling  without  intolerance  and  without  extravagance,— the 
august  figure  of  Washington  presents  itself  as  the  personation  of  all  these. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Mr.  Croker  is  perpetually  stopping  us  in  our  progress  through 
the  most  delightful  narrative  in  the  language  ,to  observe  that  really 
Dr.  Johnson  was  very  rude  that  he  talked  more  for  victory  than 
for  truth  that  his  taste  for  port-wine  with  capilliare  in  it  was  very 
odd  that  Boswell  was  impertinent  and  that  it  was  foolish  in  Mrs. 
Thrale  to  marry  the  music-master. 

2.  To  give  an  early  preference  to  honor  above  gain  when  they 
stand  in  competition  to  despise  every  advantage,  which  cannot  be 
attained  without  dishonest  acts  to  brook  no  meanness,'and  to  stoop 
to  no  dissimulations*are  the  indications  of  a  great  mind. 

Rule  3.   Sentences  Connected  in  Meaning",  but  without 
Grammatical  Dependence. —  When  several  sentences  follow 
4 


38  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

each  other,  without  any  grammatical  dependence,  but  con- 
nected in  meaning,  they  are  usually  separated  from  each 
other  by  semicolons. 

Example :  "  She  presses  her  child  to  her  heart ;  she  drowns  it  in  her  tears ; 
her  fancy  catches  more  than  an  angel's  tongue  can  describe." 

Note.  In  all  the  cases  which  come  under  this  Rule,  two  features  are  essential. 
First,  each  of  the  several  members  forming  the  continued  sentence  should  be 
complete  in  itself,  so  that  it  might  grammatically  stand  alone,  with  a  period 
following.  Secondly,  these  several  members  should  have  some  underlying 
thread  of  connection  in  the  thought.  Authors  differ  in  regard  to  the  punctua- 
tion, in  these  cases.  Some  insist  on  separating  the  members  by  a  period.  By 
such  a  course,  however,  we  lose  one  important  means  of  marking  nice  changes 
of  thought.  Others  use  the  colon,  instead  of  the  semicolon,  for  these  purposes. 
This  was  the  case  formerly  much  more  than  now.  The  best  usage  at  present  is, 
to  employ  a  period,  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma,  according  to  the  degree  of 
complexity  or  simplicity  of  the  several  sentences,  and  the  degree  of  closeness  or 
looseness  of  connection  in  the  thought.  If  the  connection  is  close,  and  the  suc- 
cessive members  are  short  and  simple,  the  comma  is  used ;  if  the  members  are 
somewhat  longer,  and  especially  if  any  of  them  are  at  all  complex,  the  semi- 
colon is  used ;  if,  in  addition  to  this,  the  connection  in  the  thought  is  but  faint, 
the  colon  is  used ;  and  when  the  connection  almost  disappears,  the  period  is 
used.  The  connection  in  the  thought  does  not  disappear  entirely  until  the  close 
of  the  paragraph. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Stones  grow  vegetables  grow  and  live  animals  grow  live  and 
feel. 

2.  The  summer  is  over  and  gone  .the  winter  is  here  with  its  frosts 
and  snow  the  wind  howls  in  the  chimney  at  night  the  beast  in  the 
forest  forsakes  its  lair  the  birds  of  the  air  seek  the  habitation  of  men. 

3.  The  temples  are  profaned;  the  soldier's  oath  resounds  in  the 
house  of  God  the  marble  pavement  is  trampled  by  iron  hoofs*  horses 
neigh  beside  the  altar. 

Rule  4.  The  Clause  Additional. —  When  a  sentence  com- 
plete in  itself  is  followed  by  a  clause  which  is  added  by  way 
of  inference,  explanation,  or  enumeration,  the  additional 
clause,  if  formally  introduced  by  some  connecting  word,  is 
separated  from  the  main  body  of  the  sentence  by  a  semi- 
colon ;  but,  if  merely  appended  without  any  such  connecting 
word,  by  a  colon. 

1.  Apply  yourself  to  study ;  for  it  will  redound  to  your  honor. 

2.  Apply  yourself  to  study :  it  will  redound  to  your  honor. 


PUNCTUATION— COLON.  39 

Note  1.  Some  of  the  connecting  words  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose 
are  namely,  for,  but,  yet,  to  wit,  etc. 

Note  2.  The  word  as,  when  used  to  connect  an  example  with  a  rule,  should 
be  preceded  by  a  semicolon  and  followed  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Greece  has  given  us  three  great  historians/  namely  Herodotus 
Xenophon  and  Thucydides. 

2.  Some  writers  divide  the  history  of  the  world  into  four  ages  / 
viz.  the  golden  age  the  silver  age  the  bronze  age,  and  the  iron  age. 

3.  Some  writers  divide  the  history  of  the  world  into  four  ages  .' 
the  golden  age  the  silver  age  the  bronze  age  and  the  iron  age. 

4.  Cicero  in  his  treatise  on  morals  enumerates  four  cardinal  vir- 
tues to  wit  Fortitude  Temperance  Justice  and  Prudence. 

Rule  5.  A  General  Term  in  Apposition  to  the  Particulars 
nnder  it. —  When  a  general  term  stands  in  apposition  to 
several  others  which  are  particulars  under  it,  the  general 
term  is  separated  from  the  particulars  by  a  semicolon,  and 
the  particulars  are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

Note.  If  the  enumeration  of  the  particulars  is  given  with  much  formality, 
so  as  to  make  the  several  expressions  complex,  containing  commas  of  their  own, 
then  these  particulars  must  be  separated  from  the  general  term  by  a  colon,  and 
from  each  other  by  semicolons;  as, — 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes;  Distributive,  Demonstra- 
tive, and  Indefinite. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  these  three  classes:  first,  the  Distributive, 
which  are  four  in  number;  secondly,  the  Demonstrative,  which  are  four;  and 
thirdly,  the  Indefinite,  which  are  nine. 

SECTION    III. 

The  Colon. 

The  Colon  marks  a  division  of  a  sentence  more  nearly 
Complete  than  that  of  a  semicolon. 

Note  1.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  kwAop  (colon),  a  limb,  or  member. 
Note  2.  The  principal  uses  of  the  colon  have  already  been  given  in  Rules  4 
and  5. 


40  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Rule  1.    Greater    Divisions   of    Complex    Sentences. — 

When  the  minor  divisions  of  a  complex  sentence  contain  a 

semicolon,  the   greater  divisions  should  be  separated  by  a 

colon;  thus, — 

As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved  along  the  dial,  hut  did  not  perceive 
it  moving;  and  it  appears  that  the  grass  has  grown,  though  nobody  ever  saw  it 
grow :  so  the  advances  we  make  in  knowledge,  as  they  consist  of  such  insensible 
steps,  are  only  perceivable  by  the  distance. 

Rule  2.  Before  a  Quotation. —  A  colon  is  used  before  a 
direct  quotation ;  as, — 

Speaking  of  party,  Pope  makes  this  remark :  "  There  never  was  any  party,  fac- 
tion, sect,  or  cabal  whatsoever,  in  which  the  most  ignorant  were  not  the  most 
violent." 

Note  1.  If  the  quotation  is  of  considerable  length,  consisting  of  several  sen- 
tences, or  begins  a  new  paragraph,  it  should  be  preceded  by  both  a  colon  and  a 
dash;  as,— 
At  the  close  of  the  meeting,  the  president  rose  and  said :  — 
"  Ladies  and  Gentlemen,  it  is  with  extreme  reluctance  that  I  address  you  on 
this  occasion,"  etc. 

Note  2.  If  the  quotation  is  merely  some  short  saying,  a  comma  is  sufficient; 
as,  Dr.  Thomas  Brown  says,  "  The  benevolent  spirit  is  as  universal  as  the  miseries 
which  are  capable  of  being  relieved." 

Rule  3.  Yes  and  No. —  The  words  yes  and  no,  when  in 
answer  to  a  question,  should  be  followed  by  a  colon,  provided 
the  words  which  follow  are  a  continuation  or  repetition  of  the 
answer;  as, — 

"  Can  these  words  add  vigor  to  your  hearts?  Yes :  they  can  do  it ;  they  have 
often  done  it." 

Note.  Yes  and  no  are  often  followed  by  some  noun  in  the  vocative  case,  or 
case  independent;  as,  "Yes,  sir,"  "Yes.  my  lords,"  etc.  In  such  cases,  the  colon 
should  come  after  the  vocative ;  as.  "  Yes,  sir :  they  can  do  it."  "  Yes,  my  lords: 
I  am  amazed  at  his  lordship's  speech." 

Rule  4.  Title-Pages.  —  Sometimes  the  main  title  of  a 
book  is  followed  by  an  alternative  or  explanatory  title,  in 
apposition.  If  this  alternative  title  is  introduced  by  the  con- 
junction or,  a  semicolon  should  precede  the  or,  and  a  comma 
follow  it;  but  if  or  is  not  used,  then  the  alternative  title 
should  be  separated  from  the  main  one  by  a  colon  ;  as, — 


PUNCTUATION— COLON.  41 

Literature  in  Letters ;  or,  Manners,  Art,  Criticism,  Biography,  etc. 
English  Grammar :  An  Exposition  of  the  Principles  and  Usages  of  the  English 
Language. 

Note.  At  the  bottom  of  a  title-page  it  is  customary  to  put  the  place  of  pub- 
lication, the  name  of  the  publishers,  and  the  year,  in  the  order  just  named ;  and 
to  insert  a  colon  after  the  name  of  the  place,  a  comma  after  the  name  of  the 
publishers,  and  a  period  at  the  end.  Example.  Philadelphia:  Eldredge  & 
Brother,  1879. 

Examples  for  Practice  on  the  Rules  for  the  Com- 
ma, the  Semicolon,  and  the  Colon. 

[To  the  Student.  Give  the  Rule  for  each  Comma,  Semicolon,  or  Colon  that 
you  find  in  the  examples  which  are  punctuated ;  and  insert  these  points  where 
needed,  giving  the  Rules  for  the  same,  in  the  examples  not  punctuated.  In  the 
unpunctuated  sentences,  this  mark  ©  is  inserted  at  the  places  where  a  point  of 
some  kind  is  due.] 

1.  No  one  denies  that  there  are  greater  poets  than  Horace;  and 
much  has  been  said  in  disparagement  even  of  some  of  the  merits 
most  popularly  assigned  to  him,  by  scholars  who  have,  nevertheless, 
devoted  years  of  laborious  study  to  the  correction  of  his  text  or  the 
elucidation  of  his  meaning. 

2.  Satire  always  tends  to  dwarf  >©  and  it  cannot  fail  to  carica- 
ture o;but  poetry  does  nothing  ©  if  it  does  not  tend  to  enlarge  and 
exalt,©  and  if  it  does  not  seek  rather  to  beautify  than  deform. 

3.  When  he  invites  Tyndaris  to  his  villa,  the  spot  is  brought 
before  the  eye :  the  she-goats  browsing  amid  the  arbute  and  wild 
thyme;  the  pebbly  slopes  of  Ustica;  the  green  nooks  sheltered 
from  the  dog-star;  the  noon-day  entertainment;  the  light  wines 
and  the  lute. 

4.  The  fundamental  characteristic  of  man  is  spiritual  hunger/  © 
the  universe  of  thought  and  matter  is  spiritual  food. 

5.  He  feeds  on  Nature  ©/he  feeds  on  ideas  ©;he  feeds  ©  through 
art  ©,  science,©  literature  ©  and  history  ©  on  the  acts  and  thoughts 
of  other  minds. 

6.  It  must  be  observed  ©  that  in  suggesting  these  processes  ©  I 
assign  them  no  date  ©;nor  do  I  even  insist  upon  their  order. 

7.  This  is  an  iambic  line  in  which  the  first  foot  is  formed  of  a 
word  and  a  part  of  a  word  ©ythe  second  and  third  ©  of  parts  taken 
from  the  body  or  interior  of  a  word*©  the  fourth  ©  of  a  part  and  a 
whole  ©  the  fifth  ©  of  two  complete  words. 

8.  Melissa5©  like  the  beep  gathers  honey  from  every  weed© 

4*  J 


42  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

while  Arachne,©  like  the  spider  ©  sucks  poison  from  the  fairest 
flowers. 

9.  The  present  life  is  not  wholly  prosaic©  precise,©  tame  ©  and 
finite,©  to  the  gifted  eye  ©.'  it  abounds  in  the  poetic. 

10.  Are  these  to  be  conquered  by  all  Europe  united  ?  No  ©;  sir  ©/ 
no  united  nation  can  be©  that  has  the  spirit  to  resolve  not  to  be 
conquered. 

11.  Be  our  plain  answer  this  ©  The  throne  we  honor  is  the  peo- 
ple's choice  ©  the  laws  we  reverence  are  our  brave  fathers'  legacy  '© 
the  faith  we  follow  teaches  us  to  live  in  bonds  of  charity  with  all 
mankind  ©  and  die  with  hope  of  bliss  beyond  the  grave. 

12.  The  discourse  consisted  of  two  parts  ©in  the  first  was  shown 
the  necessity  of  exercise  ©  in  the  second  ©  the  advantages  that  would 
result  from  it. 


SECTION    IV. 
The  Period. 
The  Period  marks  the  completion  of  the  sentence. 

Note.  The  word  Period  is  derived  from  the  Greek  n-epioSos  (periodos).a  circuit, 
and  means  primarily  anything  rounded  or  brought  to  completion.  It  was  the 
first  point  introduced. 

Rule  1.  Complete  Sentences. —  Sentences  winch  are  com- 
plete in  sense,  and  not  connected  in  construction  with  what 
follows,  and  not  exclamatory  or  interrogative  in  their  char- 
acter, should  be  followed  by  a  period. 

Note  1.  Sentences,  though  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are  sometimes  sepa- 
rated by  a  period,  if  the  parts  are  long  and  complex,  and  are  severally  complete 
in  themselves;  as,— 

"  Other  men  may  have  led,  on  the  whole,  greater  and  more  impressive  lives 
than  he ;  other  men,  acting  on  their  fellows  through  the  same  medium  of  speech 
that  he  used,  may  have  expended  a  greater  power  of  thought,  and  achieved  a 
greater  intellectual  effort,  in  one  consistent  direction;  other  men,  too  (though 
this  is  very  questionable),  may  have  continued  to  issue  the  matter  which  they 
did  address  to  the  world,  in  more  compact  and  artistic  shapes.  But  no  man  that 
ever  lived  said  such  splendid  extempore  things  on  all  subjects  universally ;  no 
man  that  ever  lived  had  the  faculty  of  pouring  out,  on  all  occasions,  such  a  flood 
of  the  richest  and  deepest  language." 

It  is  questionable,  however,  whether  even  in  this  case  a  colon  would  not  be  the 
proper  point 


PUNCTUATION— PERIOD.  43 

Note  2.  The  conjunctions  and,  but,  for,  etc.,  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence, 
do  not  always  indicate  that  degree  of  connection  with  what  precedes  which 
should  prevent  the  use  of  the  period  before  them.  This  is  especially  the  case 
in  the  Bible.  (Luke  23 :  27,  28,  29.)  "And  there  followed  him  a  great  company 
of  people,  and  of  women,  which  also  bewailed  and  lamented  him.  But  Jesus 
turning  unto  them  said,  Daughters  of  Jerusalem,  weep  not  for  me,  but  weep  for 
yourselves,  and  for  your  children.  For,  behold,  the  days  are  coming,  in  the 
which  they  shall  say,"  etc. 

Rule  2.  After  Titles,  etc. —  A  period  should  be  used  after 
the  title,  or  any  of  the  headings,  of  a  book  ;  after  the  author's 
name  and  titles,  on  the  title-page ;  after  the  address  of  a 
person,  on  a  letter  or  note;  and  after  each  signature  to  a 
letter  or  other  document. 

Note  1.  A  title-page  consists  usually  of  three  parts,  each  ending  in  a  period. 
These  are,  1.  The  title  of  the  book  ;  2.  The  name  of  the  author,  with  any  titles  of 
honor  or  office  that  may  be  appended  to  it;  3.  The  name  of  the  publisher,  with 
the  date  and  place  of  publication.  Example.  A  Treatise  on  Meteorology,  with  a 
Collection  of  Meteorological  Tables.  By  Elias  Loomis,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  and  Astronomy  in  Yale  College,  and  Author  of  a  Course  of  Mathe- 
mathics.    New  York :  Harper  &  Brothers,  1868. 

Note  2.  In  addressing  a  letter,  the  residence  given,  if  given,  is  a  part  of  the 
address.  There  should  be  a  comma  between  the  several  parts,  and  a  period  at 
the  end  of  the  whole  address.    Ex.  John  Simpson,  21  Green  Street,  Philadelphia. 

Rule  3.  After  Abbreviations. —  A  period  is  used  after  all 
abbreviated  words. 

Note  1.  The  most  common  method  of  abbreviation  is  to  use  the  first  letter  of 
a  word  for  the  whole  word,  as  B.  Franklin  for  Benjamin  Franklin.  Sometimes, 
in  abbreviating  the  word,  the  first  letter  is  doubled ;  as  p.  for  page,  pp.  for  pages, 
M.  for  Monsieur,  MM.  for  Messieurs.  In  such  cases,  a  period  is  not  inserted  be- 
tween the  two  letters  which  represent  the  plural  of  one  word.  This  explains 
why  there  is  no  period  between  the  two  L's  in  the  title  LL.D.  (Legum  Doctor), 
the  LL.  standing  for  one  word  in  the  plural,  and  the  D.  for  the  other  word  in  the 
singular.  Sometimes  a  word  is  abbreviated  by  taking  the  first  two  or  three 
letters,  as  Eng.  for  England;  sometimes  by  taking  the  first  letter  and  the  last, 
as  Wm.  for  William,  La.  for  Louisiana ;  sometimes  by  taking  the  first  letter  and 
some  leading  letter  in  the  middle  of  the  word,  as  Mo.  for  Missouri,  MS.  for  Manu- 
script. In  these  cases,  the  period  is  to  be  used  only  at  the  end  of  the  combined 
letters.  In  the  case  last  cited,  the  last  letter  of  the  combination  is  doubled  when 
the  word  is  plural ;  as,  MS.  manuscript,  MSS.  manuscripts. 

Note  2.  When  an  abbreviated  word  comes  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  use  two  periods.  One  point  is  sufficient  to  mark  both  the  abbrevia- 
tion and  the  end  of  the  sentence.  But  if  the  construction  requires  some  other 
point,  as  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  interrogation,  etc.,  both  points  must  be 
inserted,  one  to  mark  the  grammatical  construction,  the  other  to  mark  the  ab- 


44  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

breviation ;  as,  "  He  reported  the  death  of  John  Chapman,  M.D."  "  John  Chap- 
man, M.D.,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four,  was  carried  off  by  disease." 

Note  3.  When  two  or  more  abbreviated  titles  follow  each  other,  they  must  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  commas,  just  as  they  would  be,  if  written  out  in 
full.  Thus:  "Thomas  Sumner,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Laws,  Bishop  of 
London,"  abbreviated,  becomes,  "Thomas  Sumner,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Bp.  of  London." 

Note  -4.  Proper  names  are  sometimes  permanently  shortened,  the  short  form 
being  meant,  not  as  an  ordinary  abbreviation,  but  as  the  real  and  true  name. 
This  was  the  case  with  the  celebrated  dramatist,  Ben  Jonson.  We  have  analogous 
and  more  familiar  instances  in  Ned  Buntline,  Bill  Smith,  Tom  Jones,  etc.  In  such 
cases,  no  period  should  be  inserted  to  mark  abbreviation. 

Note  S.  In  like  manner,  various  other  abbreviations  which  are  in  very  fa- 
miliar use  acquire  the  character  of  integral  words,  not  requiring  the  period  after 
them  to  denote  abbreviations.  They  become  nouns,  with  a  singular  and  a  plural. 
Thus,  in  England,  Cantab  (an  abridgment  of  Cantabrigiensis,  and  meaning  an 
alumnus  of  Cambridge  University),  has  become  a  noun,  the  body  of  the  alumni 
being  called  Cantabs,  and  any  one  of  them  a  Cantab.  In  like  manner,  we  have 
Jap  and  Japs  for  Japanese,  consol  and  consols  for  consolidated  loan  or  consoli- 
dated loans  of  the  British  Government,  three  per  cents,  five  per  cents,  etc.* 

Note  6.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  A.  B,  C,  etc.,  when  used  in 
geometry  and  other  sciences  to  represent  quantities,  are  not  abbreviations,  and 
should  not  be  so  marked  by  the  insertion  of  a  period. 

Note  7.  When  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  represent  numerals,  it 
is  customary  to  insert  a  period  at  the  end  of  each  completed  numeral ;  as,  Psalms 
iv.,  xxi.,  lxxxvi.,  cxix.,  etc.  When  dates  are  thus  expressed,  the  whole  number 
is  separated  into  periods  of  thousands,  hundreds,  and  the  portion  less  than  a 
hundred ;  as,  M.DCCC.LXXI.  for  the  year  one  thousand,  eight  hundred,  and 
seventy-one,  or  1871. 

Note  8.  The  Arabic  figures,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and  the  various  marks  used  by 
printers,  as  g  for  section,  fl  for  paragraph,  etc.,  are  not  abbreviations,  but  stand 
for  whole  words,  and  therefore  do  not  require  the  period.  The  period  is  used, 
however,  before  decimals,  and  between  pounds  and  shillings ;  as,  £2.  10s.  4d. 
sterling  is  worth  $13,719  at  the  present  rate  of  exchange. 

Note  9.  The  words  4to,  8vo,  12mo,  etc.,  are  not  strictly  abbreviations,  the 
figures  representing  a  part  of  the  word.  If  the  letters  were  writtten  in  place  of 
the  figures  which  represent  them,  it  would  be  seen  at  once  that  the  words  are 
complete.'guar-to,  octo-vo,  duodeci-mo,  etc.  Periods  therefore  are  not  required  for 
such  words.    The  same  rule  will  apply  to  1st,  2dly,  3dly,  etc. 

Examples  for  Practice. 
[To  the  Student.    Give  the  Rule  for  each  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  or  period 
that  you  find  in  the  examples  which  are  punctuated :  and  insert  these  points 

♦  This  word  cent,  in  the  combination  per  cent,  had  become  thoroughly  established 

as  an  integral  word,  and  was  almost  universally  written  and  printed  without  the 
mark  of  abbreviation ;  but  of  late  years,  sonic  of  our  book-maker*,  iu  :i  spirit  of 
hypercriticism,  have  insisted,  unwisely  I  think,  on  restoring  the  period  after  cent  to 
show  that  it  is  an  abbreviation  of  centum.  They  ought  in  consistency  to  put  a  period 
alter  quart,  to  show  that  it  is  an  abbreviation  of  quarta,  or  after  cab,  because  it  is 
abbreviated  for  cabriolet. 


PUNCTUATION— PERIOD.  45 

where  needed,  giving  the  Rules  for  the  same,  in  the  examples  not  punctuated. 
When  a  period  is  used  to  mark  the  end  of  a  sentence,  the  word  following,  if 
there  is  one,  should  begin  with  a  capital.] 

1.  Excellence  in  conversation  depends  ©  in  a  great  measure,©  on 
the  attainments  which  one  has  made/©  if,©  therefore^  education  is 
neglected  ©  conversation  will  become  triflingp  if  perverted,©  cor- 
rupting. 

2.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus  were  established  1807  B,C,©, those  of 
Lycurgus  ©,884  B.C.©, of  Draco  ©,623  B.C  ©,of  Solon,©  587  B.C.© 
See  chap.vii,^  xiv^lT  ^  p.  617  . 

3.  The  reader  is  requested  to  refer  to  the  following  passages  of 
Scripture p  Ex.xxv18  Deut.xx.21,2  Sam<19;2 

4.  Bought  ©  on  9  inos^redity©  the  following  articles:©  4  yds,3  qrs. 
2  n  of  broadcloth  at  $12  a  yd,©  6  gals.l  pt.2  gi  of  vinegar  at  65 
cts.a  gal©  and  3£  cords  of  wood  at  $7.50  a  cord* 

5.  Poetry  was  not  the  sole  praise  of  either;  for  both  excelled 
likewise  in  prose :  but  Pope  did  not  borrow  his  prose  from  his  pre- 
decessor. 

6.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,©  rising  into  inequalities  ©  and 
diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation  *p 
Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn  ©  shaven  by  the  scythe  ©  and  levelled  by 
the  roller. 

7.  Of  genius  ©  ^that  power  which  constitutes  a  poet,©  that  qual- 
ity without  which  judgment  is  cold  ©  and  knowledge  is  inert,'©  that 
energy  which  collects,©  combines  ©  amplifies  ©  and  animates;© 
the  superiority  must  ©y  with  some  hesitation  ©be  allowed  to  Dry- 
den©  . 

8.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  that  of  this  poetical  vigor  Pope  had 
only  a  little,  because  Dryden  had  more;  for  every  other  writer 
since  Milton  must  give  place  to  Pope  ;  and  even  of  Dryden  it  must 
be  said,  that,  if  he  has  brighter  paragraphs,  he  has  not  better  poems. 

*  The  teacher  may  multiply  and  vary  indefinitely  examples  like  the  2d,  3d,  4th, 
using  for  this  purpose  the  ordinary  school-books  on  Arithmetic.  Geography,  etc.  Such 
examples  should  be  given  until  the  student  is  entirely  familiar  with  the  modes  of 
punctuating  these  common  abbreviations. 


46  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

SECTION    V. 
The  Interrogation  Point. 
An  Interrogation  Point  is  used  for  marking  questions. 

Note  1.  In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  marked  off  by  it,  the  Interroga- 
tion Point  is  equivalent  most  commonly  to  a  period  ;  but  it  may  be  equivalent 
to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  It  is  a  question  of  some  importance  to 
know,  in  each  case,  to  which  of  these  four  points  the  interrogation  point  is 
equivalent,  because  upon  this  depends  the  propriety  of  using,  or  not  using,  a 
capital  after  it.  When  there  is,  in  that  particular  construction,  but  one  interro- 
gation point,  it  is  always  equivalent  to  a  period,  and  should  be  followed  by  a 
capital.  When,  however,  there  is  a  succession  of  questions,  following  each  other 
in  a  series,  without  any  affirmative  sentences  intervening,  the  interrogation 
points  sometimes  represent  sections  of  discourse  less  than  a  period.  The  way  to 
determine  to  which  class  the  particular  questions  belong  is  to  change  the  con- 
struction into  an  affirmative  form.  It  will  in  one  case  be  resolved  into  a  series 
of  independent  sentences,  separated  by  periods ;  in  the  other,  into  a  connected 
or  continued  sentence,  with  co-ordinate  members  separated  by  commas,  semi- 
colons, or  colons.  Example.  "  Who  will  bring  me  into  the  strong  city  ?  who 
will  lead  me  into  Edom  ?  Wilt  not  thou,  O  God,  who  hast  cast  us  off?  and  wilt 
not  thou,  O  God,  go  forth  with  our  hosts?"  (Ps.  108:  10, 11.)  Change  to  the  affirm- 
ative form.  "Some  one  will  bring  me  into  the  strong  city;  some  one  will  lead 
me  into  Edom.  Thou,  O  God,  who  hast  cast  us  oft',  wilt  do  it ;  thou,  O  God,  wilt 
go  forth  with  our  hosts."  Another  example.  "  Who  goeth  a  warfare  any  time 
at  his  own  charges?  who  planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  there- 
of? or  who  feedeth  a  flock,  and  eateth  not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock?  Say  I  these 
things  as  a  man  ?  or  saith  not  the  law  the  same  also?"  (1  Cor.  9:  7,  8.)  Affirm- 
atively: "'No  one  goeth  a  warfare  at  any  time  at  his  own  charges;  no  one 
planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof;  no  one  feedeth  a  flock, 
and  eateth  not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock.  I  do  not  say  these  things  as  a  man  ;  the 
law  saith  the  same  things  also."  Another  example.  "  Shall  a  man  obtain  the 
favor  of  Heaven  by  impiety?  by  murder?  by  falsehood?  by  theft?"  Affirm- 
atively :  "  A  man  cannot  obtain  the  favor  of  Heaven  by  impiety,  by  murder,  by 
falsehood,  by  theft." 

Rule  1.    Direct   Questions.  —  The  Interrogation   Point 
should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  every  direct  question. 

Note  1.  A  direct  question  is  one  in  regular  form,  requiring,  or  at  least  admit- 
ting an  answer;  as,  "  Why  do  you  neglect  your  duty?"  An  indirect  question  is 
one  that  is  merely  reported  or  spoken  of;  as,  "  He  inquired  why  you  neglected 
your  duty." 

Note  2.  When  there  is  a  succession  of  questions,  having  a  common  gram- 
matical dependence  on  some  preceding  word  or  clause,  each  question  forming 
by  itself  an  incomplete  sentence,  some  writers  place  an  interrogation  point  only 
at  the  end  of  the  series,  and  separate  the  several  members  by  a  dash,  or  perhaps 
by  a  comma.    This  method  of  punctuation  is  not  correct.    Kach  question,  no 


PUNCTUATION— EXCLAMATION.  47 

matter  how  short  or  broken,  should  have  its  own  point.    See  the  example  im. 
mediately  preceding  Rule  1. 

Note  3.  Where  the  words  on  which  a  series  of  questions  have  a  common  de- 
pendence come  after  the  questions,  instead  of  preceding  them,  there  should  be 
an  interrogation  point  only  at  the  end ;  as,  "  Where  be  your  gibes  now ;  your 
gambols ;  your  songs ;  your  flashes  of  merriment,  that  were  wont  to  set  the  table  in 
a  roar  f  "  Here  the  clause  italicized  refers  back  to  all  four  items,  the  "  gibes,"  "  gam- 
bols," "  songs,"  and  "  flashes  of  merriment."  They  all  have  a  grammatical  depend- 
ence upon  it.  If  the  sentence  should  be  transposed,  so  as  to  place  this  clause  first, 
then  each  question  will  come  out  complete,  and  will  have  its  interrogation  point. 
Thus :  "  Where  now  be  those  things  of  yours  that  were  wont  to  set  the  table  in  a 
roar?— your  gibes?  your  gambols?  your  songs?  your  flashes  of  merriment?" 

Note  4.  Sometimes  a  question  is  intended,  although  the  words  are  not  put  in 
the  usual  interrogative  form.  Thus :  '*  You  will  come  this  afternoon  ?  "  In  such 
cases  the  interrogation  point  should  be  used,  as  in  this  example,  although  the 
sentence  may  be  declarative  in  its  form. 

Note  S.  When  a  question  formally  introduces  a  remark  or  a  quotation,  the 
question  should  first  be  brought  to  a  close  with  an  interrogation  point,  and  then 
the  remark  or  quotation  should  follow ;  as,  Who  that  has  read  can  ever  forget 
the  words  of  Hamlet's  soliloquy?— 

"  To  be.  or  not  to  be ;  that  is  the  question  :         / 
Whether  'tis  nobler  in  the  mind  to  suffer 
The  slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune; 
Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 
And  by  opposing  end  them." 


SECTION    VI. 
The  Exclamation  Point. 
The  Exclamation  Point  is  used  for  marking  strong  emotion. 

Note  1.  In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  set  off  by  it,  the  exclamation 
point,  like  the  interrogation  point,  is  equivalent  commonly  to  a  period;  but  it 
may  be  equivalent  to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  The  same  considera- 
tions govern  here  that  govern  in  the  case  of  the  Interrogation.  See  Note  under 
"  Interrogation  Point." 

Rule  1.  The  Exclamation  Point  must  be  used  at  the  close 
of  every  sentence,  clause,  or  grammatical  expression,  intend- 
ed to  convey  strong  emotion. 

Note.  Inexperienced  and  weak  writers  are  apt  to  deal  largely  in  the  use  of 
the  exclamation  point,  as  if  to  make  up  for  the  feebleness  of  the  thought  by  mere 
tricks  of  punctuation.    Young  writers  therefore  should  be  on  their  guard  in  this 


48  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

matter,  and  not  use  the  exclamation  point  unless  there  is  some  real  and  strong 
emotion  to  be  expressed. 

Rule  2.  The  Exclamation  Point  must  be  used  after  an 
interjection;  as, — 

Fie  on  him !  Ah  me !  Oh !  it  hurts  me.  Oh  that  I  could  find  him !  O  father 
Abraham !  O  Lord  !  * 

Note  1.  Where  the  interjection  does  not  stand  by  itself,  but  forms  part  of  a 
sentence,  clause,  or  expression,  the  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  whole  expression,  and  not  immediately  after  the  interjection ;  as,  "  O 
wretched  state !    O  bosom  black  as  death !  " 

Note  2.  Sometimes  oh  is  grammatically  separable  from  the  words  following 
it,  though  the  emotion  runs  through  the  whole.  In  that  case,  there  should  be  a 
comma  after  the  oh,  and  the  exclamation  point  at  the  end  of  the  whole  expres- 
sion ;  as,  "  Oh,  where  shall  rest  be  found ! " 

Note  3.  When  an  interjection  is  repeated  several  times,  the  words  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  a  comma,  the  exclamation  being  put  only  after  the 
last ;  as,  "  Fie,  fie,  fie !  pah,  pah !  give  me  an  ounce  of  civet,  good  apothecary,  to 
sweeten  my  imagination." 

Note  4.  Two  of  the  interjections,  eh  and  hey,  are  sometimes  uttered  in  a  pecu- 
liar tone,  so  as  to  ask  a  question.  In  that  case,  they  should  be  followed  by  the 
interrogation  point ;  as,  M  You  thought  you  would  not  be  found  out,  eh  ?  " 


Rule  3.  Where  the  emotion  to  be  expressed  is  very  strong, 
more  than  one  exclamation  point  is  sometimes  used ;  as, 
"  That  man  virtuous ! !  You  might  as  well  preach  to  me  of 
the  virtue  of  Judas  Iscariot ! ! " 

Note.  This  mode  of  repeating  the  exclamation  point  is  much  used  in  bur- 
lesque and  satire. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[To  the  Student.  These  examples,  though  intended  mainly  for  illustrating 
the  Rules  for  the  marks  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation,  will  yet  serve  the  in- 
cidental purpose  of  reviewing  all  the  preceding  rules.] 

*  In  regard  to  the  two  words  O  and  oh,  Webster  says:  A  distinction  between  the  use 
of  0  and  oh  is  insisted  on  by  some,  namely,  that  0  should  be  used  only  in  direct  ad- 
dress to  a  person  or  personified  object,  and  should  never  be  followed  by  the  exclama- 
tion point,  while  oh  should  he  used  in  mere  exclamations  where  no  direct  appeal  or 
address  to  an  object  is  made,  and  may  be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point  or  not, 
according  to  the  nature  or  construction  of  the  sentence.  This  distinction,  however, 
is  nearly  or  totally  disregarded  by  most  writers,  even  the  beet,  the  two  forma  being  gen- 
erally used  quite  indiscriminately.  The  form  O  is  the  one  most  commonly  employed 
for  both  uses  by  modern  writers.  "  O  for  a  kindling  touch  from  that  pure  flame !  " 
Wordsworth.  "  O  what  a  rapturous  cry  !"  "O  Eldon,  in  whatever  sphere  thou  shine." 
"Strike,  oh  Muse,  in  a  measure  bold  !  "  Macaulay.  "(),  what  a  fair  and  ministering 
angel ! "  "  O  sweet  angel ! "  Longfellow.  "  O  sir,  oh  prince,  I  have  no  country  :  none." 
Tmnyson. 


PUNCTUATIONS-DASH.  49 

1.  Why,©  for  so  many  a  yeacfc>  has  the  poet  wandered  amid  the 
fragments  of  Athens  and  Rome  ©  and  paused  o^with  strange  and 
kiadling  feelings,©  amid  their  broken  columns  ©  their  mouldering 
temples©  their  deserted  plains ©£ 

2.  Greece  ©;indeed©  fel]f©  but  how  did  she  failed  Did  she  fall 
like  Babylon  ©  Did  she  fall  like  Lucifer  a  never  to  rise  again  ©J 

3.  Rouse ©fye  Romans©  rouse,©  ye  slaves©/ 

4.  Down  ©  'soothless  insulter  ©,'I  trust  not  the  tale  ©  ( 

5.  Have  you  eyes©^Could  you  on  this  fair  mountain  leave  to 
feed  ©  and  batten  on  this  moorioHa  ©/have  you  eyes©£You  cannot 
call  it  lovej©  foij©  at  your  age  ©;the  hey-day  in  the  blood  is  tame, 
it 's  humble,  and  waits  upon  the  judgment  ©'and  what  judgment 
would  step  from  this  to  this  ©  I 

6.  Charge  ©/Chester/©  charge  ©/on  ©/  Stanley/©  on  ©/ 

7.  Who  ©^in  a  sea-fight  ©  ever  thought  of  the  price  of  the  chain 
which  beats  out  the  brains  of  a  pirate  ©?or  of  the  odor  of  the  splin- 
ter which  shatters  his  leg  ©  l 

8.  King  Charles  ©  forsooth  ©  had  so  many  private  virtues'©  And 
had  James  no  private  virtues  ©?Was  even  Oliver  Cromwell  ©Jiis 
bitterest  enemies  themselves  being  judges  .©  destitute  of  private 
virtues  ©fAnd  what  ©jafter  all,©  are  the  virtues  ascribed  to  Charles  <z>l 

9.  Ho  ©^trumpets  ©y  sound  a  war-note  ©  t 

10.  Oh/©  was  there  ever  such  a  knight,©  in  friendship  or  in  war,© 
as  our  sovereign  lord  ©  King  Henry  ©  the  soldier  of  Navarre  ©  I 


SECTION    VII. 

The  Dash. 

The  Dash  is  used  chiefly  either  to  mark  a  sudden  change 
or  interruption  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  or  to  mark 
some  elocutionary  pause. 

Note.  The  Dash,  which  is  of  modern  origin,  has  been  used  so  indiscriminate- 
ly and  injudiciously  by  ill-informed  writers,  that  some  critics  have  insisted  on 
banishing  it  entirely.  This  would  be  only  going  to  another  extreme.  There 
are,  in  many  passages,  in  those  particularly  which  are  highly  rhetorical,  turns 
of  thought,  which  can  be  indicated  by  a  dash,  and  which  cannot  be  indicated  by 
any  of  the  ordinary  grammatical  points.  The  dash,  therefore,  is  a  necessity  in 
5  D 


50  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

many  kinds  of  composition.  But  it  should  not  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 
comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period,  or  interrogation,  as  inexpert  writers  sometimes 
do  mistakenly  use  it,  but  should  be  employed  where  these  regular  marks  cannot 
be  used,  and  to  express  things  which  they  cannot  express.  The  dash,  therefore, 
is  incorrect  whenever  any  one  of  these  marks  could  be  substituted  for  it  without 
changing  the  meaning.  Young  writers  particularly  need  to  be  on  their  guard  in 
using  the  dash.  Mark  every  dash  as  wrong,  unless  some  positive  reason  for  its 
use  can  be  given,  and  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  none  of  the  ordinary  marks 
would  express  the  idea. 

Kule  1.  Construction  Changed. — A  Dash  is  used  where 
the  construction  of  the  sentence  is  abruptly  broken  off  or 
changed;  as, — 

Was  there  ever  a  bolder  captain  of  a  more  valiant  band  ?    Was  there  ever— 
but  I  scorn  to  boast. 


Kule  2.  Unexpected  Change  in  the  Sentiment. — The  Dash 
is  sometimes  used  to  mark  a  sudden  and  unexpected  change 
in  the  sentiment;  as, —  , 

^He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind  — 
No  ruffles  on  his  shirt.  >^ 

Rule  3.  Emphatic  Generalization. — A  Dash  is  sometimes 
used  to  mark  the  transition  from  a  succession  of  particulars 
to  some  emphatic  general  expression  which  includes  them  all ; 
as, — 

He  was  witty,  learned,  industrious,  plausible,—  everything  but  honest 

Rule  4.  Elocutionary  Pause.  —  A  Dash  is  sometimes  used 
to  mark  a  significant  pause,  where  there  is  no  break  in  the 
grammatical  construction  ;  as,  — 

You  have  given  the  command  to  a  person  of  illustrious  birth,  of  ancient  family, 
of  innumerable  statues,  but  — of  no  experience. 

Note.  The  mark  here  is  purely  elocutionary.  A  good  reader  will  pause  some 
perceptible  time  after  the  but,  whether  there  is  a  mark  there  or  not.  The  dtth 
serves  to  indicate  to  the  eye  what  the  good  reader  will  indicate  by  his  voice. 
This  particular  use  of  the  dash  is  pretty  well  established,  and  it  is  not  worth 
while  to  make  any  change  in  regard  to  it  now.  But  were  the  matter  of  elocu- 
tionary notation  to  be  undertaken  anew,  it  would  seem  better  to  mark  this  sus- 
pension of  the  voice  by  a  blank  space  than  by  a  dash,  the  dash  being  used  for 
Other  and  very  di  lie  rent  purposes. 


PUNCTUATION—  DA  SJT.  51 

Rule  5.  Expressions  dependent  npon  a  Concluding  Clanse. 
—  When  there  is  a  long  series  of  clauses  or  expressions,  all 
dependent  upon  some  concluding  clause,  it  is  usual,  in  pass- 
ing from  the  preceding  part  of  the  passage  to  that  upon  which 
the  whole  depends,  to  mark  the  transition  by  inserting  a  Dash, 
in  addition  to  the  comma ;  as,  — 

The  great  men  of  Rome,  her  beautiful  legends,  her  history,  the  height  to  which 
she  rose,  and  the  depth  to  which  she  fell,—  these  make  up  one-half  of  a  student's 
ideal  world. 

Note.  The  most  common  example  of  this  use  of  the  dash  is  where  the  gram- 
matical subject  or  nominative  is  loaded  with  numerous  adjuncts,  so  that  there  is 
danger  of  its  being  lost  sight  of  when  the  verb  is  introduced.  The  insertion  of 
the  dash  here  seems  to  give  the  mind  an  opportunity  of  going  back  to  the  main 
subject ;  as,  "  Every  step  in  the  attainment  of  physical  power ;  every  new  trait 
of  intelligence,  as  they  one  by  one  arise  in  the  infantine  intellect,  like  the  glory 
of  night,  starting  star  by  star  into  the  sky, —  is  hailed  with  a  heart-burst  of  rap- 
ture and  surprise." 

Rule  6.  Rhetorical  Repetition. —  When  a  word  or  an  ex- 
pression is  repeated  for  rhetorical  purposes,  the  construction 
being  begun  anew,  a  Dash  should  be  inserted  before  each  such 
repetition ;  as,  — 

Shall  I,  who  was  born,  I  might  almost  say,  but  certainly  brought  up,  in  the 
tent  of  my  father,  that  most  excellent  general  —  shall  I,  the  conqueror  of  Spain 
and  Gaul,  and  not  only  of  the  Alpine  nations,  but  of  the  Alps  themselves — shall 
I  compare  myself  with  this  half-year  captain  ? 

Note.  This  kind  of  repetition  is  sometimes  called  by  elocutionists  the  Echo. 


Rule  7.  Reflex  Apposition. —  Words  at  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence, and  standing  somewhat  detached,  and  referring  back 
by  apposition  to  preceding  parts  of  the  sentence,  should  be 
separated  from  the  previous  portions  by  a  Dash  ;  as, — 

The  four  greatest  names  in  English  poetry  are  among  the  first  we  come  to,  — 
Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Milton. 

Kings  and  their  subjects,  masters  and  their  slaves,  find  a  common  level  in  two 
places,  — at  the  cross,  and  in  the  grave. 

Note.  The  dash  here  is  said  by  some  to  indicate  the  omission  of  namely,  or 
that  is.  It  is  true  that  one  of  these  expressions  might  be  inserted  in  most  case? 
that  come  under  this  rule,  but  the  passage  would  thereby  lose  in  rhetorical  fore? 
The  dash,  in  this  case,  as  in  Rule  4,  is  in  fact  purely  elocutionary. 


52  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Rule  8.  The  Dash  Parenthetical.  —  Parenthetical  expres- 
sions are  sometimes  included  between  two  Dashes,  instead  of 
the  usual  signs  of  parenthesis  ;  as, — 

The  smile  of  a  child  —  always  so  ready  when  there  is  no  distress,  and  so  soon 
recurring  when  that  distress  has  passed  away  — is  like  an  opening  of  the  sky, 
showing  heaven  beyond. 

The  archetypes,  the  ideal  forms  of  things  without,  — if  not,  as  some  philos- 
ophers have  said,  in  a  metaphysical  sense,  yet  in  a  moral  sense, —  exist  within  us. 

Note  1.  If,  when  the  parenthetical  part  is  removed  from  a  sentence  like  one 
of  these,  the  portions  remaining  require  no  point  between  them,  no  points  besides 
the  dashes  will  be  required  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  parenthetical  ex- 
pression. Thus,  in  the  first  of  the  foregoing  examples,  if  the  parenthetical  part 
be  left  out,  the  remaining  portion  will  read,  "  The  smile  of  a  child  is  like  an 
opening,"  etc.  But  if  the  parenthetical  part  be  left  out  of  the  second  example, 
it  will  read,  "  The  archetypes,  the  ideal  forms  of  things  without,  exist  within  us," 
with  a  comma  at  the  place  where  the  two  dashes  come  in.  In  such  cases,  there 
must  be  two  commas  in  the  parenthetical  form  of  the  sentence,  namely,  one 
before  each  of  the  dashes,  as  in  the  example. 

Note  2.  If  the  parenthetical  words  express  a  question  or  an  exclamation,  they 
must  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point  or  an  exclamation  point,  before  the 
concluding  dash ;  as,  Religion  —  who  can  doubt  it  ? — is  the  noblest  theme  for  the 
exercise  of  the  intellect. 

Note  S.  The  question,  whether  the  marks  which  separate  parenthetical  words 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  shall  be  dashes,  commas,  or  marks  of  parenthesis, 
is  left  a  good  deal  to  the  fancy  of  the  writer.  The  subject  will  be  more  partic- 
ularly explained  in  the  section  on  the  Parenthesis. 

Note  4.  When  one  parenthetical  expression  is  included  within  another,  that 
which  is  least  connected  in  construction  should  be  set  off'  by  the  marks  of  paren- 
thesis, and  the  other  by  dashes;  as,— 

"Sir  Smug,"  he  cries,  (for  lowest  at  the  board  — 
Just  made  fifth  chaplain  of  his  patron  lord, 
His  shoulders  witnessing,  by  many  a  shrug, 
How  much  his  feelings  suffered  — sat  Sir  Smug,) 
"  Your  office  is  to  winnow  false  from  true ; 
Come,  prophet,  drink ;  and  tell  us  what  think  you." 

Rule  9.  Titles  run  in. —  When  a  title,  instead  of  standing 
in  a  line  by  itself,  over  a  paragraph,  is  run  in,  so  as  to  make 
a  part  of  the  paragraph,  it  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  line  by  a  dash  ;  as, — 

Fidelity  to  God.—  Whatever  station  or  rank  Thou  shalt  assign  me,  I  will  die 
ten  thousand  deaths  sooner  than  abandon  it.— -Socrates. 

Note  1.  If,  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  the  name  of  the  author  or  of  the  book 
from  which  the  paragraph  has  been  taken  is  given,  it  is  separated  from  the  rest 


PUNCTUATION— J)  A  SIT.  53 

of  the  paragraph  by  a  dash.    See  the  word  Socrates  at  the  end  of  the  preceding 
example. 

Note  2.  The  word  chapter  or  section,  occurring  on  the  same  line  with  the 
title,  is  separated  from  it  by  a  dash ;  as,— 

Chapter  1.—  Punctuation. 

Rule  10.  Question  and  Answer. —  If  question  and  answer, 
instead  of  beginning  separate  lines,  are  run  into  a  paragraph, 
they  should  be  separated  by  a  dash  ;  as, — 

Who  made  you?  — God.  What  else  did  God  make?  — God  made  all  things. 
Why  did  God  make  you  and  all  things?  — God  made  all  things  for  his  own  glory. 

Rule  11.  Omissions. —  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  the  omis- 
sions of  letters  or  figures ;  as, — 

General  W n  captured  the  Hessians  at  Trenton. 

Matt.  9 :  1-6.    [N.  B.  This  is  equivalent  to  Matt.  9 :  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.] 

Rule  12.  Examples  on  a  New  Line. —  A  dash  usually  fol- 
lows as  and  thus,  when  the  example  following  them  begins  a 
new  line. 

For  examples,  see  nearly  all  the  preceding  rules  and  notes. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Almost  all  kinds  of  raw  material  extracted  from  the  interior 
of  the  earth  o_metal8jp  coals  ©  precious  stones  ©  and  the  like  o* 
are  obtained  rrora  mines  differing  in  fertility. 

2.  The  inferiority  of  French  cultivation  erwhich  ©  taking  the 
country  as  a  whole  p  must  be  allowed  to  be  real  ©  though  much 
exaggerated  o-is  probably  more  owing  to  the  lower  average  of  in- 
dustrial skill  in  that  country©  than  to  any  special  cause©  - 

3.  Each  of  these  great  and  ever  memorable  strugglesp  Saxon 
against  Norman  ©  villein  against  lord  ©  Roundhead  against  Cava- 
lier. ©  Dissenter  against  Churchman  ©  Manchester  against  Old 
Sarum©  waso-in  its  own  order  and  season  ©  a  struggle  on  the 
result  of  which  were  staked  the  dearest  interests  of  the  human 
race  ©  . 

4.  Time  was  growing  to  be  of  high  worth  ©;  and  ©  from  causes 
which  justified  a  good  deal  ©_  though  not  quite  all  o_of  their  delay  © 
the  English  at  this  time  were  behindhand©. 

5* 


54  COMPOSITION  AND    RLETORIC. 

5.  Though  ©  as  I  was  saying  ©  it  is  only  the  shallow  part  of  one's 
hearty.  I  imagine  that  the  deepest  hearts  have  their  shallows ©_ 
which  can  be  filled  by  it;©  still  it  brings  a  shallow  relief  ©  * 

6.  Here  lies  the  great  ©;  False  marble  ©  where  ©.Nothing  but 
sordid  dust  lies  here  ©  . 

7.  Greece  ©  Carthage  ©  RomAj^^here  are  they  ©  ■ 

8.  "I  plunged  right  into  thfl  ^Lteo/and'lo-"Did  not  say  a 
word  to  the  point  ©  of  course  "^^^ 

9.  The  essence  of  all  poetry  may  be  said  to  consist  in  three 
things pJnvention©  expression©  inspiration©* 

10.  "How  are  you  ©,Trepid  ©£How  do  you  feel  to-day;©  Mr. 
Trepid ? "  "A  great  deal  worse  than  I  was©_-thank  you*©  almost 
dead  ©  I  am  obliged  to  you  '.'  ©  "  Why  ©  Trepid  ©--what  is  the  mat- 
ter with  you'!?©— Nothing  ©I  tell  you  ©.  nothing  in  particular© 
but  a  great  deal  is  the  matter  with  me  in  general'' © 


SECTION    VIII. 

The  Parenthesis. 

The  Marks  of  Parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  words  which 
have  little  or  no  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Note  1.  The  word  parenthesis  (Greek  napivOta^,  insertion)  signifies  something 
inserted  or  put  in,  and  applies  primarily  to  a  sentence  or  a  part  of  a  sentence 
inserted,  by  way  of  comment  or  explanation,  in  the  midst  of  another  sentence, 
of  which  it  is  independent  in  construction,  and  which  is  complete  without  it. 

Note  2.  We  must  distinguish  between  parenthesis  and  marks  of  parenthesis. 
The  parenthesis  is  the  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  that  is  inserted  into  another 
sentence.  The  marks  of  parenthesis  are  the  two  curved  lines  which  inclose  the 
words  thus  let  in.  The  term  marks  of  parenthesis,  to  indicate  these  curved  lines, 
is  preferred  to  parentheses.  Parentheses  means  properly  parenthetical  sentences, 
not  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Note  8.  Sometimes  commas,  and  sometimes  dashes,  are  used  instead  of  the 
curved  lines,  to  inclose  words  that  are  of  a  parenthetical  character ;  and  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  determine  when  to  use  one  of  these  modes,  and  when  to  use 
another.  It  may  be  observed,  in  general,  that  the  curved  lines  mark  the  greatest 
degree  of  separation  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  the  dashes,  the  next  greatest ; 
and  the  commas,  the  least  separation  of  all. 

Rule.  Words  inserted   in   the  body  of  a  sentence,  and 


PUNCTUATION— PARENTHESIS.  55 

nearly  or  quite  independent  of  it  in  meaning  and  construc- 
tion, should  be  inclosed  with  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 


Note  1.  A  very  common  example  of  the  use  of  marks  of  parenthesis  is  in  the 
reports  of  speeches,  where  a  person  is  referred  to,  but  not  named.  In  the  actual 
delivery  of  the  speech,  the  person  meant  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  speaker's 
pointing  or  bowing  to  him,  or  lookin^at  him,  or  by  other  significant  gesture. 
But  as  this  cannot  be  transferred  HM  ■written  or  printed  page,  the  reporter 
usually  supplies  its  place  by  inse^|  Hfl  name  of  the  person  meant,  and  the 
name  thus  inserted  by  the  reporter^Hplosed  by  marks  of  parenthesis.  Thus: 
"  After  the  very  lucid  exposition  of  the  matter  by  the  gentleman  opposite  to  me 
(Mr.  Stuart),  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  me  to  say  much  in  defence  of  this  part 
of  the  subject." 

Note  2.  In  reporting  speeches,  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  ex- 
clamations of  approbation  or  disapprobation  on  the  part  of  the  audience ;  as, 
"  My  lords,  I  am  amazed  at  his  lordship's  declaration  (hear,  hear).  Yes,  my 
lords :  I  am  amazed,  that  one  in  his  position  could  so  far  forget  the  proprieties  of 
debate." 

Note  3.  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  a  query,  or  comment  of  any 
kind,  made  by  the  one  who  is  reporting,  copying,  or  quoting  the  words  of 
another ;  as,  "  The  Romans  were  the  fisft  (indeed  ?)  who  learned  the  art  of  navi- 
gation." In  strict  accuracy,  the  marks  in  these  three  cases  (Notes  1,  2,  3)  should 
be  brackets,  because  the  matter  thus  inserted  is  really  an  interpolation  by  the  re- 
porter. But  custom  has  sanctioned  the  use  of  marks  of  parenthesis  in  these 
cases.    See  Section  IX.,  Note  2  (Brackets). 

Note  4.  In  scientific  works,  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  figures 
or  letters  that  are  employed  in  enumerating  a  list  of  particulars ;  as,  "  The  un- 
lawfulness of  suicide  appears  from  the  following  considerations:  (1.)  Suicide 
is  unlawful  on  account  of  its  general  consequences.  (2.)  Because  it  is  the 
duty,"  etc. 

Note  8.  If  no  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  in 
case  there  were  no  parenthesis  there,  then  no  points  should  be  used  at  that 
place,  in  addition  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis;  as,  "  The  Egyptian  style  of  archi- 
tecture (see  Dr.  Pocock's  work)  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the  Greek." 

Note  6.  If  a  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  in 
case  no  parenthesis  were  there,  then,  when  the  parenthesis  is  inserted,  said 
point  should  be  inserted  also,  and  should  be  placed  after  the  second  mark  of 
parenthesis ;  as,  "  Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other,  is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of 
action."  "  Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the  proud  man 
himself),  is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action." 

Note  7.  If  the  parenthetical  part  of  a  sentence  requires  at  the  end  a  point  of 
Its  own,  this  point  should  come  inside  of  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis,  and  the 
point  belonging  to  the  main  sentence  should  come  before  the  first  mark  of  paren- 
thesis ;  as,  "  While  the  Christian  desires  the  approbation  of  his  fellow -men,  (and 
why  should  he  not  desire  it?)  he  disdains  to  receive  their  good-will  by  dishonor- 
able means."  "  Say  not  in  thine  heart,  Who  shall  ascend  into  heaven  ?  (that  is, 
to  bring  Christ  down  from  above;)  or,  Who  shall  descend  into  the  deep? 
(that  is,  to  bring  up  Christ  again  from  the  dead.)    But  what  saith  it  ?  " 


56  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Note  8.  Sometimes  a  parenthesis  is  inserted,  not  between  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, but  between  complete  and  independent  sentences,  and  the  parenthesis 
itself  contains  one  or  more  complete  and  independent  sentences.  In  such  cases, 
the  words  inclosed  in  the  curved  lines  are  parenthetical  to  the  whole  paragraph, 
rather  than  to  any  one  sentence,  and  the  rule  for  punctuation  is,  to  insert,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  curved  lines,  whatever  other  punctuation  marks  the  several  sen- 
tences and  clauses  would  otherwise  require ;  as,  "  Brethren,  be  followers  together 
of  me,  and  mark  them  which  walk  so  as  ye  have  us  for  an  ensample.  (For  many 
walk,  of  whom  I  have  told  you  often,  and  now  tell  you  even  weeping,  that  they 
are  the  enemies  of  the  cross  of  Christ;  whose  end  is  destruction,  whose  god 
is  their  belly,  and  whose  glory  is  in  their  shame ;  who  mind  earthly  things.)  For 
our  conversation  is  in  heaven ;  from  whence  also  we  look  for  the  Saviour,  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ." 


SECTION     IX. 

Brackets. 

Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  in  a  sentence  a  word,  or  words, 
which  do  not  form  part  of  the  original  composition. 

Note  1.  Brackets  are  somewhat  like  the  marks  of  parenthesis  in  form,  one, 
however,  being  angular,  the  other  curved,  and  are  also  in  some  respects  like  ihe 
latter  in  signification  and  use. 

Note  2.  Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  a  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  within 
the  body  of  another  sentence,  and  thus  far  are  like  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 
But  the  matter  included  within  brackets  is  entirely  independent  of  the  sentence, 
and  so  differs  from  what  is  merely  parenthetical.  Further,  the  matter  within  the 
brackets  is  usually  inserted  by  one  writer  to  correct  or  add  to  what  has  been 
written  by  another,  Avhile  the  parenthesis  is  a  part  of  the  original  composition, 
and  is  written  by  the  same  person  that  wrote  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Note  3.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  comma  before  and  after,  the  dash 
before  and  after,  the  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  the  brackets,  all  have  something 
in  common.  They  all  are  used  to  include  matter  which  is  inserted  in  the  body 
of  a  sentence,  and  which  is  more  or  less  independent  of  the  sentence,  and 
extraneous  to  it.  They  indicate  increasing  degrees  of  independence  and  ex- 
traneousness,  about  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  just  been  named,  the  com- 
ma before  and  after  showing  least,  and  the  brackets  showing  most,  of  this  inde- 
pendence. 

Rule.  In  correcting  or  modifying  the  expressions  of  an- 
other, by  inserting  words  of  your  own,  the  words  thus  inserted 
should  be  inclosed  in  brackets ;  as, — 

A  soft  answer  turn  [turns]  away  wrath. 
The  number  of  our  days  are  [  is)  with  thee. 


PUNCTUATION— BRACKETS.  57 

The  letter  [which]  you  wrote  me  on  Saturday  came  duly  to  hand. 
The  captain  had  several  men  [who]  died  on  the  voyage. 

Note  1.  Brackets  are  used  in  critical  editions  of  ancient  authors  to  indicate 
that  in  the  opinion  of  the  editor  the  words  so  inclosed  are  an  interpolation,  and 
do  not  belong  to  the  original.  The  words  thus  bracketed  are  not  interpolated  by 
the  editor,  but  the  editor  takes  this  means  of  indicating  that  they  have  been  in- 
terpolated by  somebody  else.  He  fears  to  leave  the  words  out  altogether,  because 
they  have  stood  so  long  in  the  text,  but  he  takes  this  means  of  showing  that  he 
considers  them  spurious. 

Note  2.  Brackets  are  also  used  in  dictionaries  to  separate  the  pronunciation, 
or  the  etymology  of  a  word,  or  some  incidental  remark  about  it,  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  explanation.  Thus :  Resemblant  [Fr.  ressembler,  to  resemble].  Hav- 
ing resemblance.    [Rare.] 

Note  3.  In  printing  Plays,  the  stage  directions  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  brackets ;  and,  if  the  stage  direction  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
only  the  first  one  of  the  brackets  is  used.    Thus :  — 

Ham.  I  am  very  glad  to  see  you.    [To  Bernardo.]  Good-even,  sir. 
Pol.  The  wind  sits  in  the  shoulder  of  your  sail. 
And  you  are  stay'd  for.    There,— my  blessing  with  you;  [Laying  his  hand  on 
Laertes's  head. 
King.  I  pray  you  go  with  me.    [Exeunt. 
Hot.  Let  them  come  in.    [Exit  servant 

Note  4.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  points  before  and  after  the  brackets,  and  the 
punctuation  of  any  sentence  or  clause  within  the  brackets,  the  same  rules  will 
apply  that  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Last  Words  of  Remarkable  Mex  «o.The  last  words  of  Ra- 
leigh were;©  "  Why  dost  thou  not  strike  Jo  Strike  p  man/©  "  To 
the  executioner,©  who  was  pausing?©  The  last  of  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham.'© "  Traitor  ©  thou  hast  killed  me/©  "  To  the  assassin  Fel- 
ton  ©  The  last  of  Charles  II. .•©  " Don't  let  poor  Nelly  starve.©" 
Referring  to  Nell  Gwynne.pThe  last  of  William  III..©  "Can  this 
last  long  ©j"  To  his  physician,©  The  last  of  Locke:©  "Cease  now  ©  1' 
(To  Lady  Markham  ©  who  had  been  reading  the  Psalms  to  him  ©/  • 

2.  If  we  exercise  right  principles  fc>  and  we  cannot  have  them 
unless  we  exercise  them)©  they  must  be  perpetually  on  the  in- 
crease © . 

3.  Are  you  still  ©I  fear  you  are  ©  far  from  being  comfortably 
settled  ©  £ 

4.  She  had  managed  this  matter  so  well,(©  oh' ©how  artful  a 
woman  she  was)©  that  my  father's  heart  was  gone  before  I  sus- 
pected it  was  in  danger. 


L" 


58  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  Know  then  this  truth  o  enough  for  man  to  know  o 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below  ©> 

6.  Our  last  king  o 
Whose  image  even  but  now  appeared  to  us© 
Was  ©as  you  know^cby  Fortinbras  of  Norway  o 
(©  Thereto  prick'd  on  by  a  most  emulate  pride  © 
Dar'd  to  the  combat t'<z>  in  which  our  valiant  Hamlet 

(©  For  so  this  side  of  our  known  world  esteemed  him  ©) 
Did  slay  this  Fortinbras  ©  . 

7.  The  Egyptian  style  of  architecture  i©  see  Dr  Pocock  ©^not  his 
discourses,©  but  his  prints}©  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the 
Greek  ©^ 

8.  Yet  ©  by  your  gracious  patience  © 
I  will  a  round  unvarnished  tale  deliver 

Of  my  whole  course  of  love  ©  what  drugs  ©  what  charms  © 
What  conjuration  ,©  and  what  mighty  magic  © 
—  ©  For  such  proceeding  I  am  charged  withal  ©  — 
I  won  his  daughter  ©  > 


SECTION   X. 

Quotation  Marks. 

A  Quotation  is  the  introduction  into  one's  discourse  of  a 
word  or  of  words  uttered  by  some  one  else. 

Note.  The.  marks  of  quotation  are  two  inverted  commas  (")  at  the  beginning, 
and  two  apostrophes  (")  at  the  end,  of  the  portion  quoted. 

Rule  1.  A  word   or  words   introduced  from  some  other 
author  should  be  inclosed  by  quotation  marks. 

Note  1.  It  is  proper  for  a  writer  to  use  quotation  marks  in  introducing  words 
from  some  other  writings  of  his  own,  if  the  words  thus  introduced  are  intended 
as  a  citation. 

Note  2.  A  writer,  in  quoting  from  himself,  may  use  his  option  in  regard  to 
the  use  of  quotation  marks.  It  depends  upon  whether  he  does,  or  does  not,  wish 
to  make  a  reference  to  his  previous  writings.  We  have  no  such  option,  however, 
when  using  the  words  of  other  people.  To  use  the  words  of  others  without  ac- 
knowledging them  to  be  such,  is  plagiarism,  which  is  only  another  name  for 
stealing.    It  is,  however,  a  breach  of  the  Decalogue,  rather  than  of  Rhetoric. 


PUNCTUATION— QUOTATION  MARKS.  59 

r  Note  S.  Sometimes,  in  quoting  from  another,  we  wish  for  convenience  to  give 
only  the  substance  of  his  meaning,  but  not  his  exact  words.  In  such  a  case,  we 
may  show  that  the  wording  has  been  thus  altered,  by  using  only  one  inverted 
comma  and  one  apostrophe,  instead  of  two.  Thus:  The  last  six  commandments 
are, '  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  Thou  shalt  not  com- 
mit adultery,  Thou  shalt  not  steal,  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness,  Thou  shalt 
not  covet.'  Unless  we  indicate  in  this  way,  or  by  express  remark,  that  the 
phraseology  has  been  altered,  we  should  in  quoting  be  careful  to  give  the  exact 
words  of  the  author,  especially  where  the  quotation  is  from  Holy  Scripture.  Any 
alteration  whatever  in  the  words  inclosed  in  quotation  marks  is  regarded  as  dis- 
honest, unless  in  some  manner  we  distinctly  indicate  that  such  alteration  has 
been  made. 

Note  4.  Quotation  marks  are  not  proper  when  we  state  the  opinion  of  others 
in  language  of  our  own ;  as,  Socrates  said  that  he  believed  the  soul  to  be  im- 
mortal. If  this  expression  be  changed,  so  as  to  give  the  exact  words  of  Socrates, 
then  the  quotation  marks  will  be  needed;  as,  Socrates  said,  "  I  believe  the  soul 
to  be  immortal." 

Note  3.  Short  phrases  from  foreign  languages  are  usually  printed  in  italics, 
instead  of  being  inclosed  in  quotation  marks;  as,  He  believed  in  the  principle 
of  nil  admirari.  Titles  and  names  of  various  kinds  are'  sometimes  marked  in 
this  way;  as,  The  Tempest  is  regarded  by  some  as  one  of  "•  Shakespeare's  earliest 
plays.  This  practice,  however,  is  not  so  much  in  vogue  as  it  was,  the  tendency 
at  present  being  to  use,  in  all  such  cases,  the  quotation  marks  instead  of  italics. 

Rule  2.  When  a  quotation  incloses  within  it  another  quo- 
tation, the  external  quotation  has  the  double  marks,  and  the 
one  included  has  only  the  single  marks  ;  as, — 

It  has  been  well  said,  "  The  command, '  Thou  shalt  not  kill,'  forbids  many 
crimes  besides  that  of  murder." 

Some  one  has  said,  "  What  an  argument  for  prayer  is  contained  in  the  words, 
*  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven ! ' 

Note  1.  If  the  inclosed  or  secondary  quotation  ends  the  sentence,  as  in  the 
second  of  the  preceding  examples,  three  apostrophes  will  there  come  together, 
of  which  the  first  will  belong  to  the  inclosed  quotation,  and  the  other  two  to  the 
original. 

Note  2.  When  an  inclosed  quotation  itself  contains  words  or  phrases  that  are 
quoted,  those  words  or  phrases  have  the  double  marks ;  as,  "  Trench  says, '  What 
a  lesson  the  word  "  diligence  "  contains ! ' " 

Note  3.  The  preceding  note  provides  for  a  quotation  within  a  quotation 
within  a  quotation.  When  the  sentence  becomes  more  involved  than  this,  the 
additional  degrees  of  quotation  cannot  be  expressed  without  producing  confu- 
sion, and  may  therefore  be  omitted;  as,  It  is  written  in  the  Gospel,  "Jesus  an- 
swered the  Jews, '  Is  it  not  written  in  your  law,  I  said,  ye  are  gods? ' "  If,  in  this 
sentence,  it  were  attempted  to  carry  out  fully  the  marking  of  quotations,  the 
words  would  stand  thus,  "It  is  written  in  the  Gospel,  'Jesus  answered  the  Jews, 
"  Is  it  not  written  in  your  law, '  I  said,  "  ye  are  gods" '  ?" ' " 

Note  4.  When  an  interrogation  or  an  exclamation  mark  comes  at  the  same 


60  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

place  with  the  quotation  marks,  the  interrogation  or  the  exclamation  mark 
should  be  placed  inside  of  the  quotation  marks,  if  it  is  a  part  of  the  passage 
quoted :  but  if  it  refers  back  to  something  preceding  the  introduction  of  the 
passage  quoted,  the  interrogation  or  exclamation  mark  should  be  outside  of  the 
quotation  marks.  Thus:  People  talk  about  the  "passing  crowd."  Yet.  if  we 
consider  rightly,  is  there  not  something  of  momentous  interest  in  this  same 
"  passing  crowd "  ?  Here  the  question  goes  back  beyond  the  quotation,  and 
therefore  the  interrogation  point  should  stand  outside  of  it.  When  Lord  Suffolk 
said  in  Parliament,  "  It  is  lawful  to  use  all  the  means  that  God  and  nature  have 
put  into  our  hands,"  Chatham  quoted  the  expression  with  an  exclamation  of 
scorn  and  surprise,  "  That  God  and  nature  have  put  into  our  hands  " !  Here  the 
exclamation  is  not  Suffolk's,  but  Chatham's,  and  therefore  should  be  put  outside 
of  the  quotation. 

Rule  3.  When  several  consecutive  paragraphs  are  quoted, 
the  inverted  commas  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
each  paragraph,  but  the  apostrophes  only  at  the  end  of  the 
whole  quotation. 

Note  1.  If  the  several  paragraphs  thus  quoted  do  not  come  together  in  the 
original,  but  are  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  book  or  essay,  each  several 
paragraph  should  begin  and  end  with  quotation  marks. 

Note  2.  If  the  extract  forms  but  one  paragraph,  but  is  made  up  of  several  de- 
tached portions  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  book  or  essay  quoted,  the  fact 
that  the  extracts  are  not  continuous  may  be  shown,  either  by  inserting  several 
points  (....)  at  each  place  where  there  is  a  break,  or  by  inclosing  each  detached 
portion  with  quotation  marks. 

Note  3.  In  some  publications,  the  inverted  commas  are  inserted  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  line  of  a  quotation,  no  matter  how  long.  The  London  Times  always 
punctuates  in  this  way.  So  do  some  American  newspapers.  The  practice  is  more 
common  in  England  than  in  America,  but  as  it  encumbers  and  disfigures  the 
page  without  any  real  advantage,  the  tendency  in  both  countries  is  towards  the 
simpler  method  prescribed  in  Rule  3. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  This  definition  ©  Dr.o  Latham  ©(from  whom  we  borrowed 
it©  illustrates  ©  in  his  work  on  the  ob  English  Language  ©p.© 
359,©  by  the  expression  (©  a  sharp-edged  instrument©,  which 
means  an  instrument  with  sharp  edges.  ^ 

2.  The  words  ©  all- wise  ©,  ©'incense-breathing  ©,©  book-seller  ©, 
and  ©  noble-man  ©  are  compounds.  . 

3.  ©  There  is  but  one  object  ©  ©  says  Augustine  ©  ©  greater  than 

»  crml  r— i   nnrl   flint,  nnp  i«  it«  f~Vf>nt<"»r  <-"»  e— >  . 


the  soul  ©  and  that  one  is  its  Creator  ©  © 
4.  ©  Let  me  make  the  ballads  of  a  nal 
Saltoun  ©  ©  and  I  care  not  who  makes  the  laws  ©  o* 


4.  ©  Let  me  make  the  ballads  of  a  nation  ©  ©  said  Fletcher  of 


PUNCTUATION— APOSTROPHE,    ETC.  61 

5.  When  Fenelon's  library  was  on  firep©  God  be  praised©© 
said  he©  ©  that  it  is  not  the  dwelling  of  a  poor  man o  o  ■ 

6.  ©  Stop  a  moment  here  ©  ©^  said  Corinne  to  Lord  Nevil,©  as  he 
stood  under  the  portico  of  the  church. o  o* pause  before  tdrawing 
aside  the  curtain  which  covers  the  entrance  of  the  temple  ©  © 

7.  A  drunkard  once  reeled  up  to  Whitefield  with  the  remark .© 
o,!rMr.o  Whitefield,©  I  am  one  of  your  converts©  ©*!  think  it  very 
likely/©  ©  was  the  reply  ©  ©  for  I  am  sure  you  are  none  of  God's  ©  ©  ■ 

8.  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  ©  ©*:Guy  Mannering  ©,  ©  is  one  of  his 
best. 


SECTION    XI. 
Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  Caret,  Etc. 

Note.  The  other  marks  used  in  composition  are  either  so  purely  grammatical, 
or  they  relate  so  much  more  to  printing  than  to  authorship,  that  the  considera- 
tion of  them  may  be  despatched  very  briefly. 

1.  The  Apostrophe  (  '  )  is  a  comma  placed  above  the  line.  It  is 
used  chiefly  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  of  letters ;  as,  O'er 
for  over. 

2.  The  Hyphen  (  -  )  is  used  to  separate  a  compound  word  into 
its  constituent  parts,  or  to  divide  a  word  into  its  syllables  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  pronunciation ;  as,  Neo-Platonic,  de-riv-a- 
tive. 

3.  The  Caret  (  A  ),  used  chiefly  in  manuscript,  shows  where  some- 
thing has  been  omitted,  and  afterward  interlined ;  as, 

his 

He  has  just  finished  ^  letter. 

4.  The  Index,  or  Hand  (  SaP"  )  calls  special  attention  to  a  subject ; 
as,  falF"  Terms,  invariably  cash  in  advance. 

5.  The  Paragraph  ( IT ),  inserted  in  a  manuscript,  denotes  that  a 
paragraph  should  begin  at  that  point. 

6.  The  Brace  (  ]  )  is  used  to  connect  several  items  under  one 
head;  as, 

The  Liquids  are  ^ 


■: 


7.  Marks  of  Ellipsis  are  sometimes  a  long  dash,  sometimes  a  suc- 
cession of  stars,  or  of  points;  as,  He  denounced  C s  [Con- 

6 


62  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

gress]  for  its  venality,  and  threatened  to  impeach  W  *  *  *  [Web- 
ster] and  A  .  .  .  .  [Adams]. 

8.  The  Accents  are  three,  the  acute  (  '  ),  the  grave  (  v  ),  and  the 
circumflex  ( A ). 

9.  The  Marks  of  Quantity  are  two,  the  long  (  "  )  and  the  short  (  v  ). 
Under  this  head  is  sometimes  put  diaeresis  (  "  ). 

10.  The  Cedilla  is  a  mark  like  a  comma  placed  under  the  letter 
c,  in  words  taken  from  the  French,  to  denote  that  the  letter  has  in 
that  case  the  sound  of  s;  as,  facade  [pronounced  fa-sad]. 

11.  Marks  of  Keference  are  the  asterisk  or  star  ( * ),  the  dagger 
( t ),  the  double  dagger  (  J  ),  the  section  ( § ),  parallel  lines  ( 1 ),  the 
paragraph  ( 1T ). 

12.  Leaders  are  dots  used  to  carry  the  eye  from  words  at  the 
beginning  of  a  line  to  something  at  the  end  with  which  they  are 
connected;  thus, 

Orthography page     7 

Etymology "      14 

Syntax . "      87 

13.  Double  Commas  Inverted  are  used  to  show  that  a  word  is  to  be 
supplied  from  the  line  above. 

(See  example  under  No.  12,  where  '*  supplies  the  place  of  the 
word  "page.") 

14.  The  Title-page  of  a  book  is  that  which  contains  the  title,  and 
is  usually  the  first  page. 

15.  Eunning  Titles,  or  Head-lines,  placed  at  the  top  of  the  page  to 
show  the  subject,  are  usually  printed  in  capitals  or  small  capitals. 

16.  Captions,  or  Sub-heads,  are  headings  placed  over  chapters  or 
sections,  but  standing  in  the  body  of  the  page,  not  at  the  top. 

17.  Side-heads  are  titles  run  into,  or  made  part  of,  the  line. 

18.  A  Frontispiece  is  a  picture  opposite  to  the  title-page. 

19.  A  Vignette  is  a  small  picture,  not  occupying  a  full  page,  but 
mixed  up  with  other  matter,  either  on  the  title-page,  or  in  any 
other  part  of  the  book. 

20.  Italics  are  letters  inclined  to  the  right.  They  are  so  called 
because  type  of  this  kind  was  first  used  by  Italian  printers. 

Note  1.  In  manuscript,  one  line  drawn  under  a  word  shows  that  it  should  be 
printed  in  italics;  two  lines,  that  it  should  be  printed  in  small  capitals;  and 
three  lines,  that  it  should  be  printed  in  CAPITALS.  Ordinary  letters  are  called 
Roman,  as  opposed  to  Italic. 

Note  2.  Some  writers  use  Italics  to  mark  emphatic  words.  This  is  a  weak 
and  foolish  device,  aud  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 


PUNCTUATION— CAPITALS.  63 

Note  3.  In  the  English  Bible,  words  are  printed  in  italic  to  show  that  they  are 
not  in  the  original,  but  are  supplied  by  the  translators  to  complete  the  meaning. 

21.  The  principal  kinds  of  type  are  the  following: 

English,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p. 

Pica,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s. 
Small  Pica,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q. 
Long  Primer,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s. 
Bourgeois,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v. 
Brevier,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Minion,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Nonpareil,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Agate,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Pearl,  a.  b,  c,  d,  e,  f.  g,  h,  1.  j.  k,  1.  m.  n,  o,  p.  q,  r,  s.  t,  u.  v.  w,  x,  y,  x. 
Diamond,  a.  b,  e.  i,  e.  f.  (.  h.  i,  i,  k.  1,  m.  d  o  p.  q.  r.  s,  t,  o,  ».  w.  x.  y,  t. 
Brilliant,  a,  b.  c.  d.  :  f.  g.  h.  i.  J.  k.  I.  m.  a.  o.  p.  q,  t.  *,  X,  «.  t.  w.  «,  j,  m. 

22.  Leads  are  thin  plates  of  type-metal,  by  which  the  lines  may 
be  spaced  further  apart.  Matter  thus  spaced  is  said  to  be  leaded. 
Matter  not  leaded  is  called  solid. 

23.  Composing,  as  a  part  of  the  printing  business,  is  putting 
matter  in  type,  or  setting  up  the  type. 

24.  The  amount  of  printed  matter  is  counted  by  ems,  that  is,  by 
the  number  of  spaces  of  the  length  of  the  letter  m. 

25.  A  Folio  is  a  leaf  or  sheet  of  paper  with  a  single  fold,  that  is, 
making  two  leaves  or  four  pages. 

26.  A  book  is  called  a  Folio  when  the  sheets  on  which  it  is 
printed  are  so  folded  that  each  sheet  makes  but  two  leaves.  It  is 
called  a  Quarto,  when  each  sheet  makes  four  leaves;  an  Octavo, 
when  each  makes  eight  leaves;  a  Duodecimo,  when  each  makes 
twelve  leaves;  a  16mo,  18mo,  24mo,  32mo,  48mo,  64mo,  96mo,  etc., 
according  as  each  sheet  makes  16,  18,  24,  32,  48,  64,  or  96  leaves. 

SECTION   XII. 

Capitals. 

Rule  1.  Ti tie-Pages  and  Headings.— Title-pages  and  the  headings 
of  chapters  should  be  entirely  in  capitals. 

Note.  The  head-line  of  the  page  is  usually  in  a  kind  of  type  called  small  cap- 
itals.   The  headings  of  sections  smaller  than  a  chapter  are  sometimes  printed  in 


64  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

small  capitals,  and  sometimes  by  beginning  only  the  principal  words  with  a  cap- 
ital. 

Rule  2.  The  First  Word  in  a  Book,  etc. —  The  first  word  of  every 
book,  tract,  essay,  etc.,  and  of  every  chapter  or  section,  also  of 
every  letter,  note,  or  writing  of  any  kind,  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

Rule  3.  The  First  Word  in  a  Sentence.  —  The  first  word  of  every 
sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  4.  Numhered  Clauses. —  Clauses,  when  separately  numbered, 
should  begin  with  a  capital,  though  not  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  full-point ;  as,  — 

This  writer  asserts,  1.  That  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations;  2.  That  she 
has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  3.  That  knowledge  will  always  be  pro- 
gressive, and,  4.  That  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries. 

Rule  5.  The  first  word  after  a  period,  except  when  used  as  an 
abbreviation,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Note  1.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  period  brings  the  sentence  to  a  close. 
The  first  word  following  it,  therefore,  begins  a  new  sentence,  and  should  have 
the  capital,  according  to  Rule  3,  already  given. 

Note  2.  For  the  same  reason  a  capital  should  follow  the  mark  of  interroga- 
tion, when  equivalent  to  a  period,  as  it  usually  is. 

Rule  6.  First  Word  of  an  Example.  —  The  first  word  of  a  sentence 
or  clause  which  is  given  as  an  example  should  begin  with  a  capital ; 
as,  "  Temperance  promotes  health." 

Note.  If  the  example  is  not  a  sentence  or  a  clause,  but  only  a  single  word,  or 
a  series  of  words,  as,  temperance,  fortitude,  honesty,  prudence,  etc.,  no  capital  is 
needed. 

Rule  7.  Quoting  Titles.  —  In  quoting  the  title  of  a  book,  •very 
noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  and  adverb  should  begin  with  a  capital ; 
as,  "  Sparks's  Life  of  Washington." 

Rule  8.  First  Word  of  a  Direct  Question.  —  The  first  word  of  a 

direct  question  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  — 

(Direct  question.)  His  words  are,  w  Why  do  you  not  study  the  lesson?" 
(Indirect  question.)  He  desires  to  know  why  you  do  not  study  the  lesson. 

Rule  9.  First  Word  of  a  Direct  Quotation.  —  The  first  word  of  a 
direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, — 


P TJNCT UA  TI O N—  CAPITALS.  65 

Plutarch  says,  ■  Lying  is  the  vice  of  slaves." 

Note.  If  this  quotation  be  changed  to  the  indirect  form,  no  capital  will  be 
needed  at  the  point  where  the  quotation  begins ;  as,  Plutarch  says  that  lying  is 
the  vice  of  slaves. 

Rule  10.  Capitals  Used  for  Figures. —  Numbers  are  sometimes  rep- 
resented by  capital  letters;  as,  I.,  II.,  II L,  IV.,  etc. 

Note.  In  referring  to  passages  in  books,  it  is  very  common  to  number  the 
chapter,  book,  sections,  etc.,  in  this  way,  and  to  begin  with  a  capital  each  name 
of  the  division  mentioned ;  as,  "  Mill's  Political  Economy,  Vol.  I,  Book  III,  Chap. 
IV,  Sec.  VI,  p.  573."  If  the  references  are  numerous,  this  method  is  found  to  be 
cumbersome  and  unsightly,  and  small  letters  are  preferred ;  as,  "  Mill's  Political 
Economy,  vol.  i,  book  iii,  chap,  iv,  sect,  vi,  p.  573." 

Rule  11.  The  pronoun  I,  and  the  interjection  O,  should  always 
be  capital  letters. 

Rule  12.  Poetry. — The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should 
begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  13.  Names  of  God. —  All  names  and  titles  of  God  should 
begin  with  a  capital;  as,  Jehovah,  Father,  Creator,  Almighty,  etc. 

Note  1.  When  any  name  usually  applied  to  the  Supreme  Being  is  used  for  a 
created  being,  it  does  not  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  The  Lord  is  a  great  God 
above  all  gods."    "  Lord  of  lords,  King  of  kings." 

Note  2.  Providence  is  sometimes  used  to  mean  God,  that  is.  the  One  who  pro- 
vides for  us;  Heaven  likewise  is  used  to  mean  the  One  who  reigns  in  heaven. 
In  such  cases  the  word  should  begin  with  a  capital.  But  if  only  God's  provi- 
dential care,  or  his  place  of  abode  is  meant,  a  capital  is  not  needed. 

Note  3.  The  adjectives  eternal,  universal,  heavenly,  divine,  etc.,  when  applied 
to  God,  need  not  begin  with  a  capital,  unless  somethi  g  in  the  particular  in- 
stance makes  them  emphatic.  Custom,  however,  has  made  capitals  necessary  in 
the  following  instances:  Almighty  God,  Infinite  One,  Supreme  Being,  First 
Cause. 

Note  4.  When  an  attribute  of  God  is  expressed,  not  by  an  adjective,  as  in  the 
instances  above,  but  by  a  noun  dependent  upon  another  noun,  as  "  Father  of 
mercies"  for  "Merciful  Father,"  the  dependent  noun  in  such  combinations 
does  not  require  a  capital. 

Note  8.  "  Son  of  God,"  as  applied  to  our  Saviour,  requires  that  both  nouns 
should  begin  with  a  capital;  "Son  of  man"  requires  no  capital  for  the  latter 
noun. 

Note  6.  Great  diversity  prevails  in  regard  to  the  pronouns,  when  referring 

to  God.    Some  authors,  in  printing  a  hymn  or  a  prayer,  make  the  page  fairly 

bristle  with  capitals,  every  pronoun  that  refers  in  any  manner  to  God  being 

decorated  in  that  manner.    The  first  stage  of  this  fancy  is  that  which  prints  in 

6*  E 


66  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

this  manner  Thou,  Thine,  Thee.  In  the  second  stage,  He,  His,  Him  are  thus 
treated.  The  last  and  highest  stage  shows  itself  in  the  relative  pronouns.  Who, 
Whose,  and  Whom.  In  the  standard  editions  of  the  English  Bible,  the  pronouns, 
when  referring  to  God,  are  never  printed  in  this  way,  not  even  in  forms  of 
direct  address  to  the  Deity ;  as,  "  But  thou,  O  Lord,  be  merciful  unto  me,"  etc. 

Rule  14.  Proper  Names. —  All  proper  names  should  begin  with 
capitals ;  as,  Jupiter,  Mahomet,  Brahma,  Pompey,  Lake  Erie,  Mon- 
day, Good  Friday,  Rome,  China,  France. 

Note  1.  The  word  devil,  when  used  to  designate  Satan,  should  begin  with  a 
capital ;  in  all  other  cases,  with  a  small  letter ;  as,  "  The  Devil  and  his  angels." 
'•  The  devils  also  believe  and  tremble." 

Note  2.  The  same  persons  who  capitalize  the  first  letter  of  the  pronouns 
when  referring  to  God,  capitalize  the  first  letter  of  heaven  and  hell  when  refer- 
ring to  the  abodes  of  the  blessed  and  of  the  lost.  But  such  is  not  the  usage  in 
the  Bible,  which  is  the  most  carefully  printed  book  in  the  language.  "  If  I 
ascend  up  into  heaven,  thou  art  there :  if  I  make  my  bed  in  hell,  behold,  thou 
art  there." 

Note  3.  North,  South,  East,  and  West,  when  used  to  denote  certain  parts  of  the 
country  or  of  the  world,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  This  man  evidently  is 
a  native  of  the  West."  But  when  they  denote  merely  geographical  direction, 
they  should  begin  with  a  small  letter;  as,  "  Ohio  lies  west  of  the  Alleghanies." 

Note  4.  When  a  name  is  compounded  of  a  proper  name  and  of  some  other 
word  which  is  not  a  proper  name,  connected  by  a  hyphen,  the  part  which  is  not 
a  proper  name  begins  with  a  capital,  if  it  precedes  the  hyphen,  but  with  a  small 
letter,  if  it  follows  the  hyphen ;  as,  Pre- Adamite,  New-England,  Sunday-school. 

Rule  15.  Words  Derived  from  Proper  Names. —  "Words  derived 
from  proper  names  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Mahometan, 
Brahmin,  Christian,  Roman;  French,  Spanish,  Grecian;  to  Chris- 
tianize, to  Judaize,  to  Romanize,  etc. 

Note  1.  The  names  of  religious  sects,  whether  derived  from  proper  names 
or  otherwise,  begin  with  a  capital :  as,  Christians,  Pagans,  Jews,  Gentiles,  Lu- 
therans, Calvinists,  Protestants,  Catholics,  etc.  The  names  of  political  parties 
likewise  begin  with  capitals ;  as,  Democrats,  Republicans.  Radicals,  Conserva- 
tives, etc. 

Note  2.  Some  words,  derived  originally  from  proper  names,  have  by  long 
and  familiar  usage  lost  all  reference  to  their  origin,  and  are  printed  like  ordinary 
words,  without  capitals ;  as,  simony,  damask,  jalap,  godlike,  philippic,  to  hector,  to 
galvanize,  to  japan,  etc. 

Rule  16.  Titles  of  Honor  and  Office. —  Titles  of  honor  and  office 
should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  The  President  of  the  United  States, 
His  Honor  the  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  President  Madison,  Queen 
Victoria,  Sir  Robert  Murchison,  Your  Royal  Highness,  etc. 


P  UNCT  UA  TION—  EX  A  MPL  ES.  67 

Note.  When  father,  mother,  brother,  sister,  uncle,  aunt,  etc.,  immediately  pre- 
cede a  proper  name,  some  writers  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Aunt  Margaret, 
Brother  John,  etc.  But  the  tendency  at  present  among  careful  writers  is  to  dis- 
continue the  use  of  capitals  in  such  cases.  In  writing  to  a  person  of  his  father, 
mother,  etc.,  it  is  customary  with  some,  as  a  mark  of  respect,  to  use  the  capital; 
as,  "  I  met  your  Father  yesterday."  In  the  family  circle,  Father  and  Mother 
often  become  proper  nouns,  when,  of  course,  they  take  the  capital.  The  term 
father,  when  used  to  denote  one  of  the  early  Christian  writers,  is  always  printed 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Chrysostom  and  Augustine  are  among  the  most  voluminous 
of  the  Fathers." 

Rule  17.  Subjects  First  Introduced.  —  In  works  of  a  scientific 
character,  when  the  subject  of  a  particular  section  is  defined,  or  is 
first  introduced,  it  begins  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  A  Pronoun  is  a  word 
used  instead  of  a  noun." 

Rule  18.  The  Bible.  —  A  capital  is  always  used  for  the  terms 
ordinarily  employed  to  designate  the  Bible,  or  any  particular  part 
or  book  of  the  Bible ;  as,  The  Holy  Bible,  the  Sacred  Writings,  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  the  Revelations,  the  Psalms,  etc.  In 
like  manner,  a  capital  is  used  in  giving  the  names  of  other  sacred 
writings,  as  the  Koran,  the  Zend  Avesta,  the  Puranas,  etc. 

Rule  19.  "Words  of  Special  Importance.  —  Words  describing  the 
great  events  of  history,  or  extraordinary  things  of  any  kind,  which 
have  acquired  a  distinctive  name,  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  the 
Reformation,  the  Revolution,  the  war  of  Independence,  the  Middle 
Ages,  Magna  Charta,  the  Gulf  Stream,  etc. 

Rule  20.  Personification.  —  In  cases  of  strongly  marked  person- 
ification, the  noun  personified  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, — 

"  Hope  for  a  season  bade  the  world  farewell. 
And  Freedom  shrieked  as  Kosciusko  fell." 

Note.  This  rule,  like  that  in  regard  to  words  of  special  importance;  requires 
discretion  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  Young  and  inexperienced  writers  are  prone 
to  apply  it  too  frequently. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  for  Practice. 

[Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  make  the  necessary  corrections  in  re- 
gard to  capitals,  giving  your  reasons  for  each  alteration.]  c 

C 

1.  Charles  ^notwithstanding  the  delay,  had  left  england  to  work  his 

way  as  best  he  might,  out  of  his  Bifficulties  -  c 

2.  the  £cots  therefore^at  the  break  of  day  ^entered  the  <2astle  . 


68  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  Fashion  is^for  the  most  part;the  ostentation  of  Riches  , 
4t„  besides  ^f  you  labor  in  moderation,  it  will  conduce  to  Health  as 
well  as  to  "V^ealth , 

5.  Sir  Peter  Carew(for  some  unknown  reason  had  written  to  ask 
for  his  pardon ,  > 

6.  The  Afanvwhen  r^e  saw  this  departeds 

7.^the  crowd  ^as  Throgmorton  left  the  court  threw  up  their  caps 
and  shouted , 

8.  Elizabeth  (who  had  been  requested  to  attend  was  not  present. 

9.  The  frost  had  set  injthe  low  damp  ground  was  hard?  the  $ykes 
were  frozen  • 

10.  a  brown  curling  beard  flowed  down  upon  his  chest. 
1L)  she  thought  the  isle  that  gave  her  birth 

the  sweetest  mildest  land  on  earth  , 

12.  The  first  Seven  carried  maces  swords, or  pole-axes  ■ 

13.  She  plans  provides  expatiates  triumphs  there  * 

14.  Who  to  the  enraptured  heart  and  ear  and  eye 
Teach  beauty,  virtue. truth  and  love  and  melody  .    % 

15.  Give  me  a  sanctified  and  just  a  charitable  and  humble  a  reli- 
gious and  contented  spirit  • 

16.  Now  a  man -now  a  seraph  and  now  a  beast  ■ 

17.  the  dragon  stands  the  hieroglyph  of  evil  and  gnaws  at  the 
tree  of  life . 

18.  The  ocelot  a  beautiful  and  striped  fiend.hisses  like  a  snake  . 

19.  He  that  calls  upon  thee  is  Theodore, the  hermit  of  Teneriffe  / 

20.  Hate,  madness  ruled  the  hour  . 

21.  We  saw  a  large  opening, or  inlet. 

22.  The  Egyptian  serpent  £he  ass-headed  devil^  deserves  the  first 
mention  as  among  the  oldest  personifications  of  the  spirit  of  evil  , 

23.  Well  Sir  Nicholas,  what  news  \ 

24.  Zaccheus,make  haste  and  come  down. 

25.  The  conspiracy  being  crushed  twithout  bloodshed, an  inquiry 
into  its  origin  could  be  carried  out  at  leisure  ■ 

26.  Thus  preciously  freighted^  the  ^anish  fleet  sailed  from  Co- 
runna 

27.  Cruel  and  savage  as  the  persecution  had  become, it  was  still 
inadequate  . 

28.  Faith  is  opposed  to  infidelity; hope  to  despair,-  charity  to  en- 
mity and  hostility  • 

29.  Allegory  kills  the  symbolical,  as  prose,  poetry   . 


PUNCTUATION— EXAMPLES.  69 

30.  Elizabeth  threw  herself  in  front  of  Marie  Antoinette  exclaim- 
ing, I  am  the  queen  .  }i 

31.  Kant  saiigive  me  matter  and  I  will  build  the  world . 
32.;>Whatever  happens.Mary  exclaims^  Elizabeth, I  am  the  wife  of 

the  Prince  of  Spain;crown/ rank  Hfe,  all  shall  go  before  I  will  take 
any  other  husband# 

33.  In  the  regions  inhabited  by  angelic  natures,unmingled  felicity 
forever  blooms/ joy  flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant 
stream,  nor  needs  any  mound  to  check  its  course  - 

34.  In  this  way  we  learned* that  miss  Steele  never  succeeded  in 
catching  the  doctor  that  Kitty  Bennett  was  satisfactorily  married  by 
a  clergyman  near  Pemberton,  that  the  "  considerable  sum1'  given  by 
Mrs.  Norris  to  William  Price  was  one  pound,'  and  that  the  letters 
placed  by  Churchill  before  Jane  Fairfax  Lwhich  she  swept  away  un- 
rea(L,contained  the  word  pardon . 

35.  The  daring  youth  explained  everythingdie  presented  philoso- 
phy in  a  familiar  form  die  brought  it  home  to  men's  bosoms'he  made 
all  smooth  and  easy  • 

36.  Then  he  shivers  his  sword  in  piecesjhe  longs  to  die/the  veins 
of  his  neck  start  out- they  burst.his  noble  blood  wells  forth  - 

37.  Ars in^atin  is  the  contrary  of  in-ers  jit  is  the  contrary  of  in- 
actioruit  is  action, 

38.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shinesjfor  clouds  will  surely  come  • 
39.ythere  are  five  nioods^the1  indicative  the  potential,  the^subjunc- 

tive.the*  imperative,and  the  infinitive, 

40.  Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have  partners;the  volup- 
tuous have  companions  and  the  wicked  have  accomplices;  none  but 
the  virtuous  have  friends,  K  U  Jl 

41.  in  his  last  Moments  He  uttered  these  words:i  fall  a  sacrifice  to 
sloth  and  luxury _^_ 

42.  Lengthen .AJ>.&w#t7A,equivalent  to  lengn  lencg  from  lang  long 
"Xlhe  longest  measure  of  any  object,  in  distinction  from  depth  thickness 

breadth  or  width, the  extent  of  anything  from  end  to  endjthe  longest 
line  which  can  be  drawn  through  a  body  parallel  to  its  sides -as  the 
length  of  a  church ,the  length  of  a  rope? 

43.  John  Tillotson,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. obtained  great  celeb- 
rity as  a  preachertnis  sermons  at  his  death  were  purchased  for  no 

*The  teacher  may  multiply  indefinitely  examples  of  this  kind  by  referring  to  any 
large  Dictionary  containing  the  derivation  and  definition  of  words.  Such  exercises 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  and  value  in  teaching  punctuation.  A  like  use  may 
be  made  of  the  sums  in  Arithmetic  and  Algebra. 


70  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

less  sum  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  guineasjthey  continue  to 
the  present  time  to  be  read  .and  to  be  held  in  high  estimation  as  in- 
structive, rational- and  impressive  discourses, 

44.  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange  enjoyed  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  IX  and 
James  VII,  great  notoriety  as  an  occasional  political  writer  <fce  is 
known  also  as  a  translator^  having  produced  versions  of  Esop's  Fa- 
bles, Seneca's  Morals, Cicero's  offices  Erasmus's  Colloquies  Quevedo's 
Visions  and  the  works  of  Josephus . 

45.  Another  lively  describer  of  human  character  who  flourished 
in  this  period,  was  Dr.  Walter  Charleton,  physician  to  Charles  11  jx 
friend  of  Hobbes;  and  for  several  years  president  of  the  college  of 
physicians  in  London. 

46.  Bacchanalian (pertaining  to  the  festivals  of  BacchuSjthe  god 
of  wine, which  were  celebrated  by  a  triumphal  procession, wherein 
men  and  women  went  about  rioting ,dancing;  and  indulging  in  all 
sorts  of  licentious  extravagance  • 

47.  Horologe  horo  hour  and  loge  that  which  tells  or  notes^s  from 
two  greek  words  signifying  together  that  which  tells  the  hour  a  sun 
dial  a  clock  a  timepiece 

48.  Bacon,  Francis,  usually  known  as  Lord  bacon^was  born  in 
London,  England,  Jan  22, 1560.  and  died  1626'  he  was  famous  as  a 
scholar  a  wit,  a  lawyer,  a  judge;a  statesman,and  a  politician. 

49.  Early  one  morning  they  came  to  the  estate  of  a  wealthy  farmet.; 
they  found  him  standing  before  the  stable,  and  heard  as  they  drew 
near,  that  he  was  scolding  one  of  his  men;  because  he  had  left  the 
ropes  with  which  they  tied  their  horses  in  the  rain  all  night, instead 
of  putting  them  away  in  a  dry  place,  ah  we  shall  get  very  little  here, 
said  one  to  the  other/that  man  is  very  close;^fe  will  at  least  try  said 
another,  and  they  approached . 

50.  The  clear  conception  outrunning  the  deductions  of  logic  the 
high  purposethe  firm  resolve  ;'the  dauntless  spirit  speaking  in  the 
tongue^ beaming  from  the  eye,  informing  every  feature  and  urging 
the  whole  man  onward,  right  onward  to  his  object, 4his  this  is  elo- 
quenccor  rather,  it  is  something  greater  and  higher  than  all  elo- 
quence it- is  actio^noble^sublime^ godlike  action, 

51.  But  it  will  be  urged  perhaps  -sir,  in  behalf  of  the  California 
gold-  that  v  though  one  crop  only  of  gold  can  be  gathered  from  the 
same  spot  yet  once  gatheredsit  lasts  to  the  end  of  time  while  our 
vegetable  gold  is  produced  only  to  be  consumed  is  gone  forever  but 
this.  Mr.  president  would  be  a  most  egregious  error  both  ways  - 


CHAPTER  II. 

DICTION. 

Diction  is  that  part  of  Rhetoric  which  treats  of  the  selec- 
tion and  the  right  use  of  words. 

Command  of  Words  Important. —  No  one  can  be  successful  as  a 
writer  or  a  speaker,  who  has  not  a  great  number  of  words  at  his 
command,  and  who  has  not  such  a  knowledge  of  the  precise  mean- 
ing of  each  as  to  be  able  in  all  cases  to  select  just  that  word  which 
expresses  most  perfectly  the  idea  intended. 

How  Obtained, —  It  is  not  in  the  power  of  rules  to  give  one  a 
command  of  words.  To  this  end,  two  things  chiefly  are  necessary ; 
an  enlarged  course  of  reading,  and  a  habit  of  observation  in  regard 
to  the  words  met  with.  Linguistic  studies  are  particularly  suited 
to  enlarge  one's  vocabulary.  Habitual  association  with  persons 
of  education  .and  refinement  has  likewise  a  tendency  to  increase 
one's  stock  of  words.  Some  persons  have  by  nature  a  special 
talent  for  this  species  of  acquisition,  and  words  on  almost  every 
subject  seem  to  come  at  their  bidding.  Such  a  talent,  whether 
natural  or  acquired,  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Extemporaneous  Translation. — One  method,  strongly  recommended 
by  Prof.  Marsh,  for  acquiring  a  ready  and  wide  command  of  words 
is  the  practice  of  extemporaneous  translation,  that  is,  of  reading 
off  into  English  a  book,  or  a  newspaper,  which  is  in  a  foreign 
language.  Authors  who  are  accustomed  to  express  only  their 
own  thoughts,  form  for  themselves  unconsciously  a  comparatively 
narrow  vocabulary.  The  practice  of  extemporaneous  translation 
forces  one  into  new  trains  of  thought,  demanding  new  words  and 
forms  of  expression,  and  thus  enlarges  continually  his  vocabulary, 

71 


72  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

and  lifts  him  ont  of  the  rut  of  pet  words  and  stereotyped  phrases 
into  which  he  would  otherwise  fall. 

Habit  of  Referring  to  the  Dictionary. —  For  acquiring  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words,  much  may  be  done  by  judi- 
cious training,  both  at  home  and  at  school.  Students  should  be 
sent  to  the  dictionary,  every  hour  of  the  day,  and  in  every  exer- 
cise where  a  question  can  arise  as  to  the  meaning  of  a  word,  until 
the  habit  is  fully  established,  in  the  mind  of  the  learner,  of  giving 
a  peremptory  challenge  to  every  word  whose  meaning  is  not  thor- 
oughly known. 

Study  of  Etymology. —  A  proper  study  of  the  etymology  of  words, 
with  suitable  exercises  for  practice  in  combining  them,  conduces  to 
the  same  end :  and  for  this  purpose,  a  good  manual  of  instruction 
in  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  words  is  an  indispensable  requi- 
site of  the  school-room.* 

Divisions  of  the  Subject. —  The  qualities  of  Style  most 
needed,  so  far  as  Diction  is  concerned,  are  Purity,  Propriety, 
and  Precision. 

Note.  These  topics  have,  in  former  treatises  on  Rhetoric,  been  treated  under 
the  head  of  Sentences.  But  they  clearly  belong  to  the  subject  of  Diction.  They 
are  attributes,  not  of  sentences,  but  of  words,  the  materials  out  of  which  sen- 
tences are  made. 

I.  PURITY. 

Diction,  when  Pure. —  An  author's  diction  is  pure  when 
he  uses  such  words  only  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  lan- 
guage, in  opposition  to  words  that  are  foreign,  obsolete,  newly 
coined,  or  without  proper  authority. 

Standard  of  Purity. —  The  only  standard  of  purity  is  the 
practice  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers.  A  violation  of 
purity  is  called  a  Barbarism. 

1.  Foreigrn  Words. 

Pedantry  and  Affectation.— It  savors  of  pedantry  and  affectation 
to  introduce  unnecessarily  into  discourse  words  from  foreign  lan- 

*  Webb's  Model  Etymology  is  recommended  aa  au  excellent  unuual  for  this  pur- 
pose. 


DICTION— PURITY.  73 

guages,  as  from  the  French,  the  Latin,  and  so  forth.  This  fault  is 
most  common  with  persons  whose  attainments  are  comparatively 
limited,  and  who  are  ambitious  of  showing  off  what  little  learn- 
ing they  have.  Kipe  scholars,  whose  knowledge  of  languages  is  ex- 
tensive and  profound,  rarely  interlard  their  discourse  with  foreign 
terms. 

Foreign  Words  Domesticated. —  Sometimes  a  foreign  word  acquires 
a  special  historical  significance,  or  it  is  adopted,  unchanged  from 
its  original  form,  as  an  English  word;  as,  the  Jiat  of  the  Almighty, 
the  shibboleth  of  party,  the  palladium  of  liberty,  an  ignis  fatuus, 
an  ignoramus,  a  cabal,  a  quorum,  an  omnibus,  an  incognito,  an 
anathema,  an  item,  a  paradise.  In  such  cases,  where  the  foreign 
word  is  one  whose  meaning  has  become  familiar  to  ordinary 
readers,—  when,  in  fact,  it  expresses  that  meaning  more  precisely 
than  any  translation  could  do, —  there  may  be  more  pedantry  in 
translating  a  word  than  in  using  it  in  the  form  with  which  the  pub- 
lic is  already  familiar. 

2.  Obsolete  Words  — New  Words. 

No  Absolute  Standard. —  A  word  is  not  necessarily  to  be  rejected 
because  it  is  new.  New  words  are  continually  coming  into  use. 
This  is  the  general  law  of  all  languages.  So  long  as  they  are 
living  languages,  they  are  subject  to  perpetual  change,  old  words 
dropping  out  and  new  ones  coming  in.  No  absolute  rule  can  be 
given  for  determining  when  an  old  word  has  become  so  far  obsolete 
as  to  make  it  unsafe  any  longer  to  use  it,  or  when  a  new  word  has 
sufficient  sanction  from  writers  and  speakers  to  give  it  a  claim  to  be 
considered  good  English.     A  few  examples  will  illustrate  this. 

Throughly,  formed  legitimately  from  the  preposition  through,  was  staple  English 
in  the  time  of  Spenser.  It  is  now  obsolete,  except  for  the  purpose  of  quaintness 
or  drollery. 

Outsider.—  No  one  now  would  hesitate  to  use  the  word  outsider.  Yet  prior  to 
the  convention  which  in  1844  nominated  Mr.  I'olk  for  the  Presidency,  the  word 
had  no  better  claim  to  being  English  than  insider,  undersider,  uppersider,  right- 
sider,  leftsider,  etc.  At  that  convention,  according  to  Prof.  Marsh,  when  an 
undue  pressure  was  made  upon  the  delegates,  by  those  from  without  who  were 
not  delegates,  some  one,  with  a  happy  audacity  of  language,  described  it  as  a 
pressure  from  the  "  outsiders ; "  and  this  term,  caught  up  by  the  reporters,  so 
suited  the  convenience  of  the  public  that  it  went  at  once  into  general  circulation, 
and  it  has  since  fairly  established  itself  as  a  constituent  part  of  the  language. 

Intensify.— It  is  rather  startling  to  be  told  that  the  word  "  intensify"  is  not  yet 
fifty  years  old.  Coleridge,  in  his  Biographia  Literaria,  tells  us  that  he  deliber- 
7 


74  COM T0SIT10N   AND    RHETORIC. 

ately  coined  the  word,  because  there  was  no  other  in  existence  to  express  a  par- 
ticular shade  of  meaning  which  he  wished  to  convey. 

Starvation  was  first  used  by  Henry  Dundas  in  1775,  in  a  speech  in  Parliament, 
which  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  Starvation  Dundas.  It  was  supposed  to  be 
the  only  instance  of  a  noun  formed  by  adding  the  Latin  ending  -ation  to  a  Saxon 
root,  but  flirtation  is  a  similar  example. 

Sculptor,  peninsula,  suicide,  opera,  and  umbrella,  were  unknown  to  the  English 
tongue  until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Bentley  in  the  last  century  had  to  defend  himself  for  using  such  novelties  as 
repudiate,  concede,  vernacular,  timid,  and  idiom. 

Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  first  published  in  1776,  marks  the  fol- 
lowing words  as  so  far  obsolete  as  not  to  be  allowable  in  ordinary  prose :  tribula- 
tion, behest,  erewhile,  ignore,  adroitness,  and  he  hesitates  about  the  following  words 
on  account  of  the  newness  of  their  introduction :  continental,  sentimental,  origin- 
ality, criminality,  capability,  originate. 

Suspended  Animation  of  Wards.  —  Words  frequently  pass  out  of 
use  for  a  time,  and  then  resume  their  place  in  literature  again, 
and  this  suspended  animation  of  words,  followed  by  a  revival  and 
restoration  to  full  activity,  is  one  of  the  most  curious  facts  in  the 
history  of  language. 

The  word  reckless  was  in  current  use  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  then  became  so  nearly  obsolete  that  Hooker,  who  used  it  in  1650,  felt 
obliged  to  explain  it  in  a  marginal  note.  It  has  since  been  revived,  and  is  now 
thoroughly  familiar  to  every  English-speaking  person. 

Abate  and  abandon,  which,  after  an  active  existence  of  some  centuries,  fell  into 
disuse  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  were  so  marked  in  the  dictionary,  are 
now  again  a  part  of  current  English. 

Kind  of  New  Words  to  be  Avoided.  —  A  writer  who  is  careful  of 
the  purity  of  his  diction  will  avoid  any  new  word,  no  matter  how 
distinguished  the  author  by  whom  it  has  been  introduced,  if  it  is 
formed  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  genius  of  the  language. 

Law  of  Verbal  Formation.  —  One  of  the  laws  of  verbal  forma- 
tion is  that  the  component  parts  of  a  word  should  be  of  similar 
linguistic  origin.  This  rule  is  violated  when  a  word  is  made  up  of 
two  parts,  one  of  which  is  Saxon,  the  other  Greek  or  Latin.  For 
example;  the  termination  -ity,  which  is  of  Latin  origin,  corre- 
sponds in  meaning  to  the  termination  -nm,  which  is  Saxon.  The 
Latin  ending,  therefore,  is  used  in  making  words  from  Latin  stems, 
as  cavity  from  cav-us,  unity  from  un-us,  purity  from  jowr-us,  brevity 
from  brev-\s,  acidity  from  ticid-us.  In  like  manner,  the  Saxon 
ending  is  used  in  making  words  from  Saxon  stems,  as  hollow-mw 
from  hollow,  one-ness  from  one,  same-wm  from  same,  Bour-ness  from 


DICTION— PURITY.  75 

sour.  Thus  also  telegraph,  telegraphic,  telegram  are  legitimate  for- 
mations, the  various  component  parts  tele,  graph,  gram,  and  ic  being 
Greek.  But  cable-graph  and  cable-gram  are  barbarisms,  the  first 
part  of  the  compound  being  from  one  language,  the  latter  part  from 
another.  Ambrotype  and  electrotype  are  legitimate,  ivorytype  is 
barbarous.     Mongrel  formations  of  this  kind  should  be  avoided. 

Law  of  Formation  not  Universal.—  The  rule  given  above,  in  regard 
to  the  formation  of  words,  is,  however,  far  from  being  universal. 
Thus  appositeness  is  a  good  word,  although  formed  with  a  Saxon 
ending  upon  a  Latin  stem. 

Both  Modes  of  Formation  on  the  Same  Stem.—  In  many  cases  the  same 
stem  gives  two  words  of  like  meaning,  one  with  a  Saxon,  the  other  with  a  Latin 
ending,  as  purity  purencss,  credibility  credibleness.  In  snch  cases,  the  one  formed 
regularly,  that  is,  with  stem  and  ending  both  from  the  same  source,  is  generally 
a  better  word  than  the  other,  as  it  is  in  the  instance  last  given,  credibility  being  a 
better  word  than  credibleness. 

Safe  Plan  in  Regard  to  New  Words.—  The  safe  plan  in  regard  to 
new  words  is  not  to  be  in  a  hurry  about  using  them.  A  writer  has 
before  him,  for  his  selection,  such  an  abundance  of  words,  about 
which  there  can  be  no  question,  that  a  case  can  rarely  occur,  in 
which  the  use  of  a  doubtful  word  is  necessary.  We  may  indeed 
have  occasion  to  speak  of  a  new  invention,  or  a  new  idea,  for  which 
there  is  no  word  but  that  originating  with  the  invention  or  the  idea 
itself.  In  such  a  case,  of  course,  we  need  not  hesitate  about  using 
the  new  word.  But  in  all  ordinary  cases,  the  safest  plan  for  a 
writer  or  a  speaker  is  to  select  only  well-known  and  fully  accredited 
words,  in  preference  either  to  those  which  have  become  partially 
obsolete  and  uncurrent,  or  to  those  which  by  reason  of  the  fresh- 
ness of  their  coinage  are  still  of  doubtful  currency. 

Pope's  Rule.—  The  rule  is  well  stated  by  Pope,  in  his  Essay  on 
Criticism : 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold; 
Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new  or  old; 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside.* 

In  discussing  the  subject  of  purity  of  diction,  I  have  thus  far  spoken  of  words 
which  are  wanting  in  this  respect  by  reason  of  their  being  foreign,  obsolete,  or 
newly  coined.    It  remains  to  speak  of  those  which  want  proper  atdhority. 

♦The  student  should  commit  these  lines  thoroughly  to  memory. 


76  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  Words  without  Proper  Authority. 

The  Question. —  What  constitutes  the  Proper  Authority  for  the 
use  of  a  word  ?  What  is  the  court  in  the  last  resort,  which  deter- 
mines beyond  appeal  whether  a  word  is,  or  is  not,  good  English  ? 

The  Answer.  — If  a  people,  by  common  consent,  use  a  particular 
word  to  mean  a  certain  thing,  that  word  is  a  part  of  the  language 
of  that  people. 

The  Dictum  of  Horace.— The  dictum  of  Horace*  to  this  effect  has 
received,  I  believe,  the  general  assent  of  the  critics,  and  it  may  now 
be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  undisputed  creed  of  the  learned, 
namely,  that  Use  is  the  law  of  language,  whether  for  single  words, 
grammatical  forms,  or  grammatical  constructions. 

Danger  of  Misconception.—  But  the  law  as  thus  expressed  is  liable 
to  many  misconceptions.  It  needs,  therefore,  some  special  limita- 
tions and  definitions,  in  order  to  make  it  practically  useful  for  the 
purpose  of  determining,  in  any  particular  case,  whether  a  word  is 
right  or  wrong. 

Campbell's  Essay.—  5To  one  has  written  on  this  point  with  more 
clearness  and  comprehensiveness  than  Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  Phil- 
osophy of  Rhetoric,  before  quoted.  His  extended  chapter  on  "  The 
Nature  and  Characters  of  the  Use  which  gives  Law  to  Language," 
is  exhaustive  of  the  subject,  and  should  be  studied  by  every  one  who 
wishes  to  enter  into  the  matter  fully.f 

The  results  at  which  Campbell  arrives,  and  in  which  all  critics 
since  his  day  have  acquiesced,  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

Campbell's  Law. — The  Use  which  determines  authorita- 
tively whether  a  word  is  legitimate  must  have  these  three 
marks : 

1.  It  must  be  Reputable,  or  that  of  educated  people,  as 
opposed  to  that  of  the  ignorant  and  vulgar. 

2.  It  must  be  National,  as  opposed  to  what  is  either  local 
or  technical. 

3.  It  must  be  Present,  as  opposed  to  what  is  obsolete. 

*  "  Usus, 
Quem  penes  arbitrium  est  et  jus  et  norma  loquendi." — Hor.  De  Art?  Poet. 
fFor  the  convenience  of  those  readers  who  may  not  have  access  to  Campbell's 
work,  an  abstract  of  his  argument  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  present  chapter. 


DICTION— PURITY.  77 

The  Way  to  Find  these  Marks.  —  The  only  way  to  ascertain 
that  a  word  has  these  characters  is  to  find  it  so  used  in  the  major- 
ity of  writers  of  good  reputation.  In  all  ordinary  cases,  we  refer 
to  a  Dictionary,  since  it  is  the  duty  of  a  lexicographer  to  ascertain 
these  facts  by  research,  and  to  mark  them  in  his  work.  In  the 
best  works  of  this  kind,  every  word  that  is  admitted  to  a  place  in 
the  Dictionary  is  assumed  to  have  these  characters,  unless  the  lexi- 
cographer distinctly  marks  the  word  as  being  obsolete,  vulgar,  pro- 
vincial, technical,  etc.;  and,  in  very  many  cases,  passages  from 
authors  of  reputation  are  quoted,  to  show  how  the  word  is  used. 

Note.  The  study  of  Diction  is  a  necessary  incident  of  every  other  study.  We 
cannot  learn  any  branch  of  knowledge  without,  at  the  same  time,  and  by  the 
same  act,  becoming  familiar  with  the  words  in  which  that  knowledge  is  con- 
veyed. Still  some  special  study  of  the  subject  is  desirable ;  and,  to  facilitate 
such  a  study,  the  following  Exercises  have  been  prepared.  The  words  given 
below  are  arranged  in  lists  of  ten  for  mere  convenience.  They  are  selected  with 
reference  to  the  question  of  Purity,  under  some  one  or  more  of  the  heads  now 
considered,  namely,  foreign,  obsolete,  newly  coined,  without  proper  author- 
ity.  To  test  the  better  the  student's  knowledge,  and  to  exercise  his  judgment, 
the  words  are  put  together  promiscuously,  and  part  of  them  are  entirely  legiti- 
mate. The  student  will  need  of  course  a  good  Dictionary  for  preparing  himself 
on  these  exercises ;  and  if  he  have  access  to  one  of  the  large  quartos,  all  the 
better. 

The  points  to  be  considered  in  regard  to  a  word  are  the  following: 

1.  Is  it  a  foreign  word?  If  so,  has  it  been  thoroughly  domesticated  as  good 
English?  or  would  its  use  savor  of  pedantry? 

2.  Is  it  a  word  which  was  once  in  use,  but  is  now  obsolete?  What  was  its 
meaning  when  it  was  used? 

3.  Is  it  a  new  word  ?  If  so,  has  it  been  in  use  long  enough  to  become  legiti- 
mate ?  or  would  its  use  be  considered  doubtful  ? 

4.  Is  there  any  irregularity  in  the  formation  of  the  word?— if  so,  is  the  irreg- 
ularity sufficient  to  condemn  it  ? 

5.  Is  the  word  vulgar,  technical,  provincial,  or  in  any  way  unsuited  for  com- 
mon use  ? 

6.  In  every  case,  give  the  meaning  and  the  etymology  of  the  word,  and  the 
authority  on  which  it  is  pronounced  legitimate  or  otherwise. 

7.  Whenever  possible,  quote  Extracts  from  known  authors  in  illustration  of 
the  opinion  pronounced. 

These  extracts  may  be  brought  in  ready  written,  but  the  other  part  of  the  work 
should  be  done  in  the  class-room,  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  part  of  the 
recitation.  The  student  has  a  model  of  what  he  is  to  learn  and  to  say,  in  regard 
to  each  word,  in  what  is  said  of  the  several  words  introduced  and  explained  on 
pages  73,  74. 

Exercises  on  Purity  of  Diction. 

1.  Cisatlantic,  alamode,  waitress,  exit,  plebiscitum,  depot,  role, 
ultimatum,  mulierosity^  aborigines. 

7* 


78  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  Gallantness,  obloquy,  incgrtain,  talkist,  resurrected,  periculous, 
moonrise,  docible,  cockney,  alibi. 

3.  Jeopardize,  preventative,  orate,  memento,  ne'e,  herbarium, 
soundness,  currentness,  boyish,  locate. 

4.  Confutement,  civilist,  expenseless,  peristyle,  opaque,  populos- 
ity,  soupqon,  finale,  blase,  alias. 

5.  Controversialist,  kraal,  lapidary,  leniency,  distingue,  feuille- 
ton,  protege,  verbatim,  rendezvous,  surtout.  , 

6.  Imprimatur,  sangfroid,  upholstery,  traducement,  waMdst,  pro- 
faneness^  atelier,  enthused^  thirster,  optigrapiu 

7.  Septemfluous,  spendthrift,  confutant,  caviare,  underlauded, 
saleslady,  amende,  employe,  equidistant,  terra  cotta. 

8.  Impromptu,  pot-pourri,  efflorescence,  fabulosity,  rootfastness, 
obediential,  elocutist,  disillusioned,  rampage,  bookish. 

9.  Ilagallantry,  discursiveness,  optable,  amour  propre,  residuum, 
parvenu,  vesper,  rebus,  acrobat,  fauteuil. 

10.  Soidisant,  rotatory,  mandamus,  nom  de  plume,  siesta,  curious- 
ness,  fashionist,  skedaddle,  bootless,  oppressors, 

11.  Misaffected,  insulse,  exorablen£ss,  verily,  spirituel,  casuality, 
matin,  patois,  elegy,  instanter. 

12.  Affidavit,  conversationist,  donate,  dilettante,  on_dit,  junta, 
persiflage,  tapis,  circumambient,  debatcmenk 

13.  DisobedientnesSj  optation,  chef-d'oeuvre,  fete,  plateau,  occi- 
dental, avoidance,  admonishment,  mulish,  misdevotion. 

To  the  Teacher.  1.  If  any  of  the  words  in  the  foregoing  lists  are  not  to  be 
found  in  the  dictionary  to  which  the  student  has  access,  the  student  should  of 
course  be  relieved  from  censure  for  not  being  prepared  on  these  particular 
words.  2.  The  teacher  should  make  a  note  of  all  barbarisms  in  Diction  which 
he  hears  in  the  class,  and  use  such  words  for  additional  examples.  3.  Exercises 
of  this  kind  should  be  continued  until  a  habit  of  attention  to  the  subject  is  firmly 
fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  student. 

H.  PROPRIETY. 

Difference  between  Purity  and  Propriety  of  Diction. — 
Purity  of  diction  refers  simply  to  the  question  whether  a 
word  is,  or  is  not,  in  good  and  current  use,  as  an  established 
part  of  the  language.  But  another  question  arises  in  regard 
to  every  word  used  in  discourse.  Is  the  word  used  correctly 
in  the  sentence  in  which  it  occurs?  The  word  may  be  a  per- 
fectly good  word,  and  yet  it  may  not  express  the  meaning 


DICTION— PROPRIETY.  79 

which  the  writer  evidently  intended  to  express.      A  writer 
who  fails  in  this  respect  offends  against  Propriety. 

This,  then,  is  the  second  point  to  which  a  writer  or  a 
speaker  should  attend.  He  should  see  that  every  word  which 
he  uses  conveys  exactly  the  meaning  which  he  wishes  to  convey. 

Means  of  Attaining  Propriety. —  To  attain  propriety  of  diction,  the 
chief  means  are  a  frequent  use  of  the  Dictionary,  and  a  constant  ob- 
servation of  the  way  in  which  words  are  used  in  good  authors.  A 
study  of  the  derivation  of  words  is  also  a  help  in  ascertaining  their 
meaning.  But  this  source  of  information  is  to  be  used  with  some 
caution,  as  many  words  acquire  in  actual  use  a  meaning  very  differ- 
ent from  that  which  their  etymology  would  suggest. 

Examples. —  A  few  examples  are  given  of  words  whose  meaning 
has  changed  from  that  indicated  by  the  etymology. 

Prevent,  which  means  etymologically,  and  which  once  meant  actually,  to  go 
before,*  now  means  to  hinder. 

Resent  means  etymologically  to  reciprocate,  or  respond  to,  any  kind  of  feeling, 
good  or  bad,  and  it  once  actually  had  this  meaning.  Three  centuries  ago  a  man 
could  speak  of  resenting  a  benefit,  as  well  as  resenting  an  injury.  The  use  of 
later  times  has  restricted  the  word  to  the  single  meaning. 

Censure  has  undergone  a  like  change.  Originally,  it  meant  to  express  any  kind 
of  opinion,  favorable  or  unfavorable ;  f  now  it  refers  to  that  only  which  is  un- 
favorable. 

Liquidate  meant  originally  to  melt,  to  change  from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  state. 
Next,  it  meant  to  make  clear,  or  transparent,  and  this  meaning  it  bore  down  to  a 
comparatively  recent  date.  "  Time  only  can  liquidate  the  meaning  of  all  parts  of 
a  compound  system."— Hamilton.    Now,  the  word  means  to  pay  off  debts. 

Adviire,  in  the  time  of  Milton,  was  still  used  in  its  Latin  sense,  to  wonder  at. 
Now  it  means  only  to  regard  with  esteem  and  reverence. 

Spenser  speaks  of  a  "chapel  edified,"  meaning  built;  a  modern  poet  would 
speak  of  edifying  the  hearers,  not  the  building. 

Milton  speaks  of  his  matter  being  "new  or  insolent"  meaning  unusual,  unac- 
customed. In  like  manner  he  "  provokes"  [challenges]  his  antagonist  to  a  trial 
of  the  truth. 

Clerk  was  originally  a  clergyman  ;  in  Chaucer,  he  is  a  college  student;  now,  he 
is  a  young  man  who  keeps  accounts,  or  sells  tape  and  buttons. 

Station  is  used  by  Shakespeare  for  the  manner  of  standing,  posture ;  now  it 
means  placed 

*  "  I  prevented  the  dawning  of  the  morning."  Ps.  119 :  147,  and  so  throughout  the 
Psalms. 

t  When  Brutus, in  the  play  of  Julius  Cssar,  says  to  the  Romans,  "Censure  me  in 
your  wisdom,"  he  does  not  ask  them  to  condemn  him,  but  only  to  judge  him,  —  to 
decide  for  or  against  him. 

%  "  A  station  like  the  herald  Mereurv, 
New-lighted  on  a  heaven-kissing' hill." 

Haudel,  Act  III.,Sc.  IV. 


80  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Violations  of  Propriety.  —  This  part  of  the  subject  may  be  best 
illustrated  by  quoting  a  few  instances  of  words  used  improperly. 

Predicate.—  In  a  leading  editorial  of  one  of  the  New  York  daily  newspapers,  I 
read  this  sentence:  "It  is  impossible  at  the  present  moment  to  predicate  what 
will  be  the  issue  of  the  pending  contest."  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  to 
predicate  is  simply  to  affirm  in  regard  to  what  already  is,  whereas  to  predict  is  to 
foretell  the  future.  The  impropriety  of  the  use  of  predicate  here  given  is  so  ob- 
vious that  I  should  not  have  quoted  it,  had  not  frequent  instances  come  to  my 
notice  of  its  being  used  in  this  way  in  publications  of  respectable  standing  and 
character. 

Mutual  is  frequently  used  improperly  in  the  sense  of  common.  "Mutual"  always 
implies  reciprocity.  It  describes  that  which  passes  from  each  to  each  of  two  per- 
sons. Rom.  1 :  12,  "  That  I  may  be  comforted  by  the  mutual  faith  both  of  you  and 
me,"  that  is,  "by  my  confidence  in  you  and  your  confidence  in  me."  Here  the 
word  is  used  with  entire  correctness.  In  like  manner  we  may  say  "  the  mutual 
love  of  man  and  wife."  But  it  is  mere  nonsense  to  speak  of  the  "  mutual  friend  of 
both  man  and  wife."  John  and  James  may  be  mutual  friends,  that  is,  the  friend- 
ship between  them  may  be  reciprocal,  John  being  friendly  to  James,  and  James 
being  friendly  to  John.  John  and  James  also  may  have  a  common  friend,  Peter, 
but  it  would  be  absurd  to  speak  of  Peter  as  being  on  this  account  their  mutual 
friend.  The  word  "  mutual  "  designates  what  is  reciprocal  between  two,  not 
something  in  one  which  is  common  to  two  or  more  others. 

Except  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  unless.  "  Except,"  whether  a  verb  or  a 
preposition,  requires  after  it  an  objective  case;  as,  "They  all  came  except  Mary 
and  Alice."  But  to  say  "  They  all  refused  to  come  except  Mary  and  Alice  would  " 
is  using  the  word  as  a  conjunction.  The  proper  word  in  such  cases  is  unless. 
Without  is  likewise  often  used  in  the  same  way  for  unless.  "  I  will  not  go  to  the 
city  without  [unless]  you  do."  Except  is  also  sometimes  used  improperly  in  the 
sense  of  besides.  "  Few  men  except  [besidesj  Caesar  would  have  dared  to  cross 
the  Rubicon." 

Like.—  Another  word  often  used  incorrectly  is  like.  The  word  is  correct  when- 
ever it  would  be  proper  to  supply  "  to"  after  it ;  as,  "  The  daughter  is  like  [to) 
her  mother."  "He  fought  like  [toj  a  lion."  But  many  careless  speakers  and 
writers  use  it  for  as.  or  as  if.  "  I  wish  I  could  write  like  [as]  you  do."  "  He  behaved 
like  [as  if  J  he  was  mad." 

Avocation  is  used  incorrectly  for  vocation.  "  Vocation  "  is  one's  business,  occu- 
pation, or  calling.  "  Avocation  "  is  properly  the  act  of  calling  aside,  or  diverting 
from  one's  employment.  "  Blessed  impulses  to  duty,  and  powerful  avocations 
from  sin."  South.  This  use,  however,  of  the  word,  though  its  etymological  and 
primary  meaning  is  now  nearly  if  not  quite  obsolete,  and  the  secondary  moan- 
ing, namely,  "the  business  which  calls  aside."  is  pretty  well  established.  Even 
in  this  sense,  however,  it  means  the  smaller  affairs  of  life,  or  those  occasional 
calls  which  summon  a  man  to  leave  for  a  time  his  ordinary  business,  or  "  voca- 
tion." 

Contemptible.—  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  persons  say,  "  I  have  a  contemptible 
opinion  of  the  man,"  by  which  they  mean,  not  that  their  opinion  is  contemp- 
tible, but  that  the  man  is.  The  familiar  anecdote  of  Doctor  Porson  furnishes  a 
good  illustration  both  of  the  incorrect  and  of  the  correct  use  of  this  word. 
Some  one  having  said  to  the  Doctor,  "My  opinion  of  you  is  most  eontoinp- 
tible,"  Porson  replied,  "  I  never  knew  an  opinion  of  yours  that  was  not  con- 
temptible." 


DICTION— PROPRIETY.  81 

Respectively.— A  large  part  of  the  letters  which  pass  through  the  Post-Office  end 
with  "  Yours,  Respectively." 

Construe  and  Construct.  —  Occasionally  cortstrue  and  construct  are  confounded  by- 
writers  of  considerable  standing.  We  construct  a  sentence  when  we  form  or 
make  one.  We  construe  it  when  we  explain  its  construction.  A  boy  construes 
a  Latin  sentence  when  he  translates  it  into  English  and  explains  its  grammatical 
structure.  He  constructs  a  Latin  sentence  when  he  translates  an  English  one 
into  correct  Latin.    Writers  construct ;  readers  construe. 

Replace.—  Some  ambiguity  has  arisen  of  late  in  regard  to  the  proper  use  of  the 
word  replace.  According  to  its  etymology,  and,  until  lately,  according  to  its  uni- 
form use,  "  replace  "  meant  to  put  one  back  into  a  place  which  he  formerly  occu- 
pied. It  now  currently  means  to  put  into  a  place  vacated  by  some  one  else. 
"  After  the  expiration  of  his  first  term.  General  Washington  was  replaced  in  the 
Presidential  chair."  This  meant  in  that  day  that  Washington  filled  the  office  a 
second  time.  "  In  the  summer  of  1867,  Stanton  was  replaced  in  the  War  Office  by 
Grant."  This  now  means  that  Grant  was  put  into  the  place  which  Stanton  had 
vacated.  This  latter  use  of  the  word  is  derived  from  a  French  expression,  signi- 
fying "  to  take  the  place  of,"  and  has  perhaps  already  acquired  so  much  authority 
in  its  favor  as  to  be  considered  good  English. 

Got. —  There  is  perhaps  no  one  word  so  variously  misused  as  "  got."  It  would 
seem  almost  as  if  there  were  no  event  in  history,  no  fact  in  science,  which  might 
not  be  expressed  by  this  convenient  drudge.  I  clip  the  following  from  an  Eng- 
lish publication :  "  I  got  on  horseback  within  ten  minutes  after  I  got  your  letter. 
When  I  got  to  Canterbury,  I  got  a  chaise  for  town ;  but  I  got  wet  through  before  I 
got  to  Canterbury ;  and  I  have  got  such  a  cold  as  I  shall  not  be  able  to  get  rid  of  in 
a  hurry.  I  got  to  the  Treasury  about  noon,  but  first  of  all  I  got  shaved  and  dressed. 
I  soon  got  into  the  secret  of  getting  a  memorial  before  the  Board,  but  I  could  not 
get  an  answer  then ;  however,  I  got  intelligence  from  the  messenger  that  I  should 
most  likely  get  an  answer  the  next  morning.  As  soon  as  I  got  back  to  my  inn,  I 
got  my  supper,  and  got  to  bed.  It  was  not  long  before  I  got  to  sleep.  When  I  got 
up  in  the  morning,  I  got  my  breakfast,  and  then  got  myself  dressed,  that  I  might 
get  out  in  time  to  get  an  answer  to  my  memorial.  As  soon  as  I  got  it  I  got  into 
the.  chaise,  and  got  to  Canterbury  by  three,  and  about  tea-time  I  got  home.  I 
have  got  nothing  more  to  say,  and  so  adieu." 

Exercises  on  Propriety  of  Diction. 

Note.  Each  of  the  sentences  given  below  contains  some  word  which,  though 
in  itself  good  English,  is  used  improperly  here.  The  student  is  expected  to  point 
out  the  word  thus  used,  show  wherein  the  impropriety  consists,  and  make  the 
necessary  correction. 

I  must  repeat  here  the  admonition  to  teachers  about  the  daily  inspection  of 
the  text-books.  No  lesson  shoiild  be  commenced  until  those  pages  of  the  book 
containing  the  lessons  for  the  day  have  passed  the  inspection  of  the  teacher.  A 
few  pencil-marks  on  the  pages  containing  the  examples  for  practice  make  the 
book  as  useless  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  as  if  the  page  were  actually  torn 
out  of  the  book. 

1.  BifeCtry  I  found  the  house  inhabited,  I  began  to  be  sorry  that 
it  was  not  as  empty  as  the  library  and  the  street. 

F 


82  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  I  want  a  position  as  a,  teacher,  and  I  will  be  greatly  obliged  to 
you  for  a  recommend. 

3.  The  girl  aggravates  me  very  much  by  her  obstinacy  and  he* 
impudence. 

4.  The  President  intends  to  -evacuate  the  very  day  that  Congress 
adjourns. 

5.  Hearing  the  whistle  of  the  engine  about  a  mile  off,  I  ran  pell- 
TfleU  down  the  street,  hoping  to  reach  the  station  in  time. 

6.  Mr.  Peabody  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  almost  every  humani- 
tarian schema.  Ia~J^a~~v^ 

7.  He  was  unwilling  to  demean  himself  by  making  a  public 
apology. 

8.  His  argument  was  predicated  on  the  behalf  that  what  the  wit- 
ness said  was  true. 

9.  Neither  of  the  twelve  jurors  could  be  induced  to  believe  the 
man  guilty. 

10.  The  epithots,  coward,  thief,  villain,  liar,  were  heaped  upon 
him  without  stint. 

11.  The  alternatives  set  before  him  were  to  abjure  his  faith,  to 
submit  to  the  torture,  or  to  go  into  perpetual  exile. 

12.  In  travelling  by  railroad,  you  have  to  settk  for  your  ticket  in 
advance. 

13.  Do  not  forget  to  send  me  an  nmte  to  your  wedding. 

14.  His  style  of  living  corresponded  with  his  means. 

15.  While  spending  the  summer  in  Utah  he  enjoyed  exceptionable 
opportunities  for  observing  the  peculiarities  of  the  Mormon  religion. 

16.  Here  is  a  ticket  for  the>aft«moon  matinee. 

17.  I  promise  yon,  I  think  he  will  come  out  all  right. 

18.  She  entered  heartily  into  the  stern  amenities  of  convent  life. 

19.  This  idea  (of  a  vessel  without  a  bowsprit)  was  a  copy  of  the 
model  maugurated  by  the  founder  of  the  Collins  line.         / 

20.  Experience  has  proved  that  England  lies  formidably  open  to 
attack. 

21.  The  troops,  though  fighting  bravely,  were  terribly  decimated, 
nearly  half  of  them  having  fallen. 

22.  The  cars  have  as  good  a  right  to  be  stopped  as  the  carriage 

23.  Just  now  he  is  stopping  at  the  Metropolitan. 

24.  No  doubt  the  men  have  some  good  points  about  them,  but  we 
are  told  not  to  fellowship  with  unbelievers. 


DICTION— PRECISION.  83 

25.  The  letter  was  very  plainly  directed,  and  I  think  it  will  be  apt 
to  come. 
'  26.  Many  years  have  now  transpired  since  the  Mexican  war. 

27.  You  will  have  to  run  faster  than  that,  if  you  wish  to  catch 
the  car. 

28.  That  rents  in  New  York  are  most  unreasonably  high  just  now 
is  a^palpraWe  truism. 

29.  I  wish  you  would  bring  me,  a  couple  of  books  en  chemistry. 

30.  Miss  Goldsmith  commenced'student  in  Yassar  College  in  her 
seventeenth  year. 

31.  There  is  not  much  fruit  in  the^ection  of  the  State  hereabouts. 

32.  I  have  every  coaftdesee  that  the  ship  will  arrive  in  time. 

33.  Every  human  being  has  this  in  common. 

34.  At  the  noise  of  fire-engines,  some  rude  fellows  rushed  out 
into  the  streets,  but  the  balance  of  the  congregation  kept  their 
seats.      ^^  i 

35.  I  ttpect  you  had  a  hard  time  of  it  yesterday. 

36.  I  consider  the  picture  Weber's  best. 

37.  The  platform  adopted  by  the  party  was  eatenhited  to  do  the 
candidate  great  harm. 

38.  This  application  of  reason,  so  continually,  consistently,  and 
generally  exercised,  predicates  a  great  national  future. 

39.  He  eeetpleles- the  book  with  ^'Hail  Columbia,  Happy  Land!  " 

40.  Selfish  men  sometimes  succeed  in  deceiving  the  world,  and  in 
being  se£-  aside  as  generous. 

IH.  PRECISION. 

Precision  is  the  third  quality  at  which  a  writer  or  a 
speaker  should  aim  in  the  selection  of  his  words. 

Meaning  of  Precision.  —  The  etymology  of  this  term  (praecidere, 
to  cut  off)  shows  how  it  is  used.  We  should,  if  possible,  find  words 
which  cut  off  all  extraneous  ideas, — which  express  only  just  what 
is  meant,  and  no  more. 

Examples  of  Words  not  used  Precisely. —  If  to  express  the  idea  of  pour- 
ing water  from  a  pot.  we  speak  of  "  turning  it  out,"  the  latter  word,  in  addition 
to  the  idea  of  pouring,  expresses  also  the  act  of  turning  the  pot,  in  order  to  the 
pouring.    Turning,  therefore,  in  this  phrase,  is  not  used  precisely. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  entreaties  of  the  prisoner,  the  judge  was  inflexible."  A 
man  is  inflexible  who  is  incapable  of  being  turned  aside  by  any  motive,—  by 
bribery,  intimidation,  entreaty,  force,  etc.    As  a  specific  motive  is  here  men- 


84  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

tioned,  that  of  entreaty,  a  more  precise  writer  would  have  used  the  word  inexoT' 
able,  which  means  specifically  one  who  cannot  be  moved  by  entreaty. 

"Attitude  of  devotion  "  is  a  more  precise  expression  than  "posture  of  devotion," 
because  "  posture  "  signifies  any  position  of  the  body,  while  "  attitude "  refers 
to  such  a  position  of  the  body  as  is  adapted  tp  express  some  internal  feeling  or 
purpose. 

The  Study  of  Synonyms. —  One  who  wishes  to  use  words  with  pre- 
cision should  study  carefully  the  subject  of  Synonyms.  Few  words 
in  any  language  are  exactly  synonymous.  Many,  which  at  first 
sight  appear  to  be  so,  are  found  on  examination  to  have  shades  of 
difference,  and  it  is  by  noticing  these  slight  differences  of  meaning 
that  we  learn  to  use  words  with  precision. 

Character  of  the  English  Language  in  Regard  to  Synonyms. —  The 
English,  more  than  almost  any  other  language,  has  words  that  are 
truly  synonymous,  and  this  on  account  of  its  composite  character. 
For  the  same  idea  we  have,  in  thousands  of  instances,  one  word 
from  the  Saxon,  another  from  the  Latin,  and  sometimes  still  a  third 
from  the  Greek ;  as,  daily  and  diurnal,  weekly  and  hebdomadal,  hap- 
piness tuna  felicity,  everlasting  and  sempiternal,  fatherly  and  pater- 
nal, nightly  and  nocturnal,  powerful  and  potential. 

A  Caution.—  Even  here,  however,  care  must  be  taken.  Optician,  from  the 
Greek,  means  a  maker  of  instruments  for  the  eye;  Oculist,  from  the  Latin, 
means  one  who  performs  operations  upon  the  eye  itself;  and  JEue-doctor,  from 
the  mother-tongue,  means  a  quack  who  has  some  nostrum  for  curing  sore  eyes. 
Motherly  may  perhaps  be  the  exact  logical  equivalent  for  maternal,  but  it  is 
worth  a  good  deal  more  to  a  loving  heart  when  away  from  the  endearments  of 
childhood  and  home. 

Books  on  the  Subject. — Grabbed  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  is  a  most 
valuable  work  for  reference  on  this  subject.  Another  excellent 
work  is  Koget's  Thesaurus  of  English  Words.  The  matter  is  also 
carefully  treated  in  the  latest  edition  of  Webster's  Quarto  Diction- 
ary, where  under  many  of  the  leading  words  the  various  other  words 
which  are  nearly  synonymous  are  given,  and  the  differences  ex- 
plained. The  subject  is  also  discussed  briefly,  but  in  a  judicious 
and  satisfactory  manner,  by  Blair  in  his  Lectures  on  Rhetoric.  I 
give  a  few  examples,  taken  chiefly  from  these  sources,  though  with 
some  alterations  to  suit  the  purposes  of  the  present  work. 

A  difficulty,  an  obstacle.— A  difficulty  embarrasses,  an  obstacle  stops  us.  We  re- 
move the  one,  we  surmount  the  other.  Generally,  the  first  expresses  something 
arising  from  the  nature  and  circumstances  of  the  affair;  the  second  something 
arising  from  a  foreign  cause.    Philip  found  difficulty  in  managing  the  Athe- 


DICTION— PRECISION.  85 

nians  from  the  nature  of  their  dispositions ;  but  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes 
was  the  greatest  obstacle  to  his  designs. 

Opportunity,  occasion.—  An  occasion  is  that  which  falls  in  our  way,  or  presents 
itself  in  the  course  of  events ;  an  opportunity  is  a  convenience  or  fitness  of  time 
and  place  for  the  doing  of  a  thing.  Hence  opportunities  often  spring  out  of  occa- 
sions. We  may  have  occasion  to  meet  a  person  frequently  without  getting  an 
opportunity  to  converse  with  him  on  a  particular  subject  about  which  we  are 
anxious.    We  act  as  occasion  may  require ;  we  embrace  an  opportunity. 

Malevolence,  malice,  malignity.—  There  is  the  same  difference  between  malevo- 
lence and  malice  as  between  wishes  and  intentions.  A  malevolent  man  wishes  ill 
to  others,  a  malicious  man  is  bent  on  doing  ill  to  them.  Malignity  goes  even  fur- 
ther ;  it  not  only  is  bent  on  doing  evil,  but  loves  it  for  its  own  sake.  One  who  is 
malignant  must  be  both  malevolent  and  malicious;  but  a  man  may  be  malicious 
without  being  malignant. 

Weight,  heaviness.—  Weight  is  indefinite ;  whatever  may  be  weighed  has  weight, 
whether  large  or  small.  Heaviness  is  the  property  of  bodies  having  an  unusual 
degree  of  weight.  Weight  lies  absolutely  in  the  thing;  heaviness  refers  to  an 
opinion  which  some  one  may  have  in  regard  to  that  thing  as  being  the  opposite 
of  light.  We  estimate  the  weight  of  things  by  a  certain  fixed  measure ;  we  esti- 
mate the  heaviness  of  things  by  our  feelings. 

Pale,  pallid,  wan.—  The  absence  of  color  in  any  degree,  where  color  is  a  usual 
quality,  constitutes  paleness ;  pallidness  is  an  excess  of  paleness,  and  wanness  is 
an  unusual  degree  of  pallidness.  Fear,  or  any  sudden  emotion,  may  produce 
paleness;  protracted  sickness,  hunger,  and  fatigue  bring  on  pallidness;  and  when 
these  calamities  are  greatly  heightened  and  aggravated,  they  produce  wanness. 
Pale  is  applicable  to  a  great  variety  of  objects,  as.  a  pale  face,  a  pale  sky,  a  pale 
green,  a  pale  rose,  and  it  may  be  either  natural  or  acquired,  desirable  or  unde- 
sirable. Pallid  is  applicable  to  the  human  face  only,  and  never  to  that  except 
as  implying  disease  or  something  out  of  the  course  of  nature.  Wan  is  applicable 
to  a  face  having  such  a  degree  of  pallor  as  to  be  ghastly  and  monstrous. 

Avow,  acknowledge,  confess.—  Each  of  these  words  imports  the  affirmation  of  a 
fact,  but  in  very  different  circumstances.  To  avow  a  thing,  supposes  a  person  to 
glory  in  it;  to  acknowledge,  supposes  a  small  degree  of  faultiness,  which  the  ac- 
knowledgment compensates;  to  con/ess,  supposes  a  higher  degree  of  crime.  An 
independent  legislator  avows  his  opposition  to  some  measure  of  the  executive, 
and  is  applauded;  a  gentleman  acknowledges  his  mistake,  and  is  forgiven:  a 
prisoner  confesses  the  crime  with  which  he  is  charged,  and  is  punished. 

Lucid,  luminous.— A  thing  is  lucid,  when  it  is  pervaded  with  light:  it  is  lumi- 
nous, when  it  sends  forth  light  to  other  bodies.  A  stream  may  be  lucid ;  the  stars 
are  luminous.  An  argument  is  lucid,  when  the  reasoning  is  perfectly  clear  to  the 
apprehension ;  it  is  luminous,  when  the  author  not  only  makes  his  meaning  clear, 
but  pours  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  subject. 

Only,  alone.—  Only  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the  same  kind ;  alone  im- 
ports being  accompanied  by  no  other.  An  only  child  is  one  who  has  neither 
brother  nor  sister ;  a  child  alone  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  "  Only  virtue  makes 
us  happy  "  means  that  nothing  else  can  do  it.  "  Virtue  alone  makes  us  happy  " 
means  that  virtue  by  itself,  and  unaccompanied  with  other  advantages,  is  suffi- 
cient to  do  it. 

Kill,  murder,  assassinate.—  To  kill  means  simply  to  deprive  of  life.  A  man  may 
kill  another  by  accident,  or  in  self-defence,  without  the  imputation  of  guilt.  To 
8 


86  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

murder  is  to  kill  with  malicious  forethought  and  intention.  To  assassinate  is  to 
murder  suddenly  and  by  stealth.  The  sheriff  may  kill  without  murdering:  the 
duellist  murders,  but  does  not  assassinate ;  the  assassin  both  kills  and  murders  in 
the  meanest  and  most  ignoble  manner. 

Discover,  invent.—  We  discover  what  existed  before,  but  was  unknown ;  we  in- 
vent what  is  new.  Columbus  discovered  America,  Whitney  invented  the  cotton- 
gin.  Henry  discovered  the  laws  of  electric  induction,  Morse  invented  the 
telegraph. 

Kingly,  regal,  royal.—  Kingly,  which  is  Anglo-Saxon,  refers  especially  to  the 
character  of  a  king;  regal,  which  is  Latin,  refers  more  to  the  office.  The  former 
is  chiefly  used  of  dispositions,  feelings,  purposes,  and  the  like ;  the  latter  is  ap- 
plied more  to  external  state.  We  speak  of  kingly  deeds,  kingly  sentiments,  "a 
kingly  heart  for  enterprises'"  (Sidney),  but  of  the  regal  title,  regal  pomp.  Royal, 
which  comes  from  regal  through  the  French,  has  a  meaning  more  akin  to 
kingly. 

Whole,  entire,  total,  complete.— Whole  refers  to  a  thing  as  made  up  of  parts  none  of 
which  are  wanting:  as  a  whole  book,  that  is,  a  book  with  no  leaves  out.  Total 
has  reference  to  all  as  taken  together  and  forming  a  single  unit  or  totality ;  as, 
the  total  amount,  the  sum  total.  Entire  has  no  reference  to  parts  at  all,  but  con- 
siders a  thing  as  being  integer,  that  is,  unbroken  or  continuous ;  as,  the  entire 
summer.  Complete  refers  to  preceding  progress  ending  in  the  perfect  filling  out 
of  some  plan  or  purpose;  as;  a  complete  victory. 

Contagion,  infection.—  Both  words  imply  the  communication  of  something  bad. 
In  the  case  of  contagion,  this  is  done  by  outward  contact  or  touch ;  in  the  case 
of  infection,  by  invisible  influences  working  inwardly.  The  plague  and  small- 
pox are  contagious,  various  forms  of  fever  are  infectious.  Bad  manners  are 
contagious ;  bad  principles,  infectious. 

Explicit,  express.—  Both  words  convey  the  idea  of  clearness  in  a  statement,  but 
the  latter  is  the  stronger  word  of  the  two.  Explicit  denotes  something  set  forth 
so  plainly  that  it  cannot  well  be  misunderstood.  Express  adds  a  certain  degree 
of  force  to  this  clearness.  An  express  promise  is  not  only  one  in  clear,  unam- 
biguous words,  but  one  standing  out  in  bold  relief,  with  a  binding  hold  on  the 
conscience.    We  speak  of  an  explicit  statement,  but  of  an  express  command. 

Excite,  incite.— To  excite  is  to  awaken  or  arouse  feelings  that  were  dormant  or 
calm.  To  incite  is  to  urge  forward  into  acts  correspondent  to  the  feelings  which 
have  been  awakened. 

With,  by.—  Both  words  imply  a  connection  between  some  instruments  or  means, 
and  the  agent  by  whom  it  is  used  ;  but  with  signifies  a  more  close  and  immediate 
connection,  by  a  more  remote  one.  An  ancient  king  of  Scotland  interrogated  his 
nobles  as  to  the  tenure  by  which  they  held  their  lands.  The  chiefs,  starting  Dp, 
drew  their  swords,  saying.  "  By  these  [the  remote  means]  we  acquired  our  lands, 
and  with  these  [the  immediate  instrument]  we  will  defend  them."  We  kill  a  man 
with  a  sword ;  he  dies  by  violence. 

Sufficient,  enough. — Sufficient  refers  to  actual  wants;  enough,  to  the  desires,  to 
what  we  think  we  want.  A  man  has  sufficient,  when  his  wants  are  supplied ;  he 
has  enough,  when  his  desires  are  satisfied.  A  greedy  man  never  has  enough, 
though  he  may  have  a  sufficiency.  Another  distinction  is  that  enough  is  used 
of  objects  of  desire  only,  while  sufficient  may  be  spoken  of  anything  which  serves 
a  purpose.  "  Children  and  animals  seldom  have  enough  food."  "  We  should 
allow  sufficient  time  for  whatever  is  to  be  done,  if  we  wish  it  to  be  done  well." 


EXERCISES    IN  PRECISION.  87 

Example,  instance.—  An  instance  denotes  the  single  case  then  standing  before 
us,  and  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  there  are  other  cases  like  it.  An  example, 
on  the  contrary,  is,  by  its  very  terms,  one  of  a  class  of  like  things.  It  is  a  sample 
of  a  class.  An  example  presupposes  and  implies  a  rule,  an  established  course 
or  order  of  things  ;  an  instance  simply  points  out  what  is  true  in  that  particular 
case,  but  may  not  necessarily  be  true  in  any  other  case.  "  An  instance  or  two 
of  severity  in  the  life  of  a  man  who  gave  every  day  examples  of  his  kindness 
of  heart,  ought  not  to  change  our  opinions  of  his  character  as  a  whole." 

[To  the  Teacher.  By  frequent  practice  in  tracing  the  differences  between  words 
seemingly  alike,  such  as  those  which  have  now  been  adduced,  a  habit  will  be  formed 
of  noticing  more  particularly  the  exact  meaning  of  the  words  we  meet  with,  and 
thus  our  own  diction  will  almost  unconsciously  acquire  greater  precision.  To  aid 
in  the  formation  of  this  important  habit,  additional  examples  are  given  below  of 
words  partially  synonymous,  but  with  varying  shades  of  meaning.  Each  of  these 
sets  of  words  is  to  be  explained  and  illustrated  by  the  student  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  those  already  given.] 

Exercises  in  Precision. 

1.  Abandon,  desert,  forsake;  abettor,  accessory,  accomplice;  abase, 
debase,  degrade ;  ability,  capacity ;  abash,  confuse,  confound. 

2.  Abdicate,  resign ;  abolish,  repeal,  abrogate,  revoke,  annul,  nul- 
lify ;  abridgment,  compendium,  epitome,  abstract,  synopsis ;  absent, 
abstracted ;  absolve,  exonerate,  acquit. 

3.  Abuse,  invective;  accomplish,  effect,  execute,  achieve,  per- 
form; account,  narrative,  narration,  recital;  accuse,  charge,  im- 
peach, arraign;  acknowledge,  recognize. 

4.  Acquaintance,  familiarity,  intimacy;  add,  join,  annex,  unite, 
coalesce;  adjacent,  adjoining,  contiguous;  adjourn,  prorogue;  ad- 
monition, reprehension,  reproof. 

5.  Adorn,  ornament,  decorate,  embellish ;  adulation,  flattery,  com- 
pliment; adversary,  enemy,  opponent,  antagonist;  affliction,  sorrow, 
grief,  distress;  affront,  insult,  outrage. 

6.  Agony,  anguish,  pang;  alarm,  fright,  terror,  consternation; 
alleviate,  mitigate,  assuage,  allay;  also,  likewise,  too;  altercation, 
dispute,  wrangle. 

7.  Amend,  emend, correct,  reform,  rectify;  amidst,  among;  ample, 
abundant,  copious,  plenteous ;  amuse,  divert,  entertain ;  ancient, 
antiquated,  antique,  obsolete,  old. 

8.  Anger,  fury,  indignation,  ire,  resentment,  rage,  wrath;  ani- 
mosity, enmity;  announce,  proclaim,  promulgate,  publish;  antici- 
pate, expect;  appreciate,  estimate,  esteem. 

9.  Arduous,  difficult,  hard;  argue,  debate,  dispute;  artificer, 
artisan,  artist;  ascribe,  attribute,  impute;  asperse,  calumniate, 
defame,  slander. 


88  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

10.  Assert,  maintain,  indicate;  at  last,  at  length ;  atrocious,  flagi- 
tious, flagrant;  attack,  assail,  assault,  invade;  attempt,  endeavor, 
effort,  exertion,  trial. 

11.  Attend,  hearken,  listen;  authentic,  genuine;  avaricious,  cov- 
etous, miserly,  niggardly,  parsimonious,  penurious ;  avenge,  revenge ; 
antipathy,  aversion,  disgust,  reluctance,  repugnance. 

12.  Avoid,  shun;  dread,  reverence,  veneration;  awkward,  clum- 
sy, uncouth ;  adage,  aphorism,  axiom,  maxim ;  baffle,  defeat,  frus- 
trate. 

13.  Banish,  exile,  expel;  bashfulness,  diffidence,  modesty,  shy- 
ness ;  battle,  combat,  engagement,  fight ;  be,  exist ;  beast,  brute. 

14.  As,  because,  for,  inasmuch  as,  since;  become,  grow;  ask, 
beg,  request;  benevolent,  beneficent;  bent,  bias,  inclination,  pre- 
possession. 

15.  Bequeath,  devise;  beseech,  entreat,  implore,  solicit,  suppli- 
cate; among,  between;  blameless,  faultless,  spotless,  stainless; 
blaze,  flame. 

16.  Burden,  load;  calculate,  compute,  count,  reckon;  calamity, 
disaster,  mischance,  misfortune,  mishap;  call,  convoke,  summon; 
can  but,  can  not  but. 

17.  Captious,  cavilling,  fretful,  petulant;  anxiety,  care,  concern, 
solicitude;  cautious,  circumspect,  wary;  cessation,  intermission, 
pause,  rest,  stop;  chasten,  chastise,  punish. 

18.  Chief,  chieftain,  commander,  leader;  choose,  elect,  prefer; 
coerce,  compel;  comfort,  console,  solace;  commit,  consign,  intrust. 

19.  Conceal,  disguise,  dissemble,  hide,  secrete;  acknowledge, 
avow,  confess;  confute,  refute;  congratulate,  felicitate;  conquer, 
overcome,  subdue,  subjugate,  vanquish. 

20.  Consist  in,  consist  of;  constant,  continual,  perpetual;  con- 
template, intend,  meditate;  contemptible,  despicable,  pitiful,  paltry; 
couvince,  persuade. 


DICTION— CAMPBELL'S   ESSAY.  89 


Abstract  of  Campbell's  Essay  on  Use  as  the  Law 
of  Language. 

Every  tongue  whatever  is  founded  in  use  or  custom.  Language  is  purely  a 
species  of  fashion,  in  which,  by  the  general  but  tacit  consent  of  the  people  of  a 
particular  state  or  country,  certain  sounds  come  to  be  appropriated  to  certain 
things,  and  certain  ways  of  inflecting  and  combining  those  sounds  come  to  be 
established,  as  denoting  the  relations  which  subsist  among  the  things  signified. 

It  is  not  the  business  of  grammar,  as  some  critics  seem  preposterously  to  im- 
agine, to  give  law  to  the  fashions  which  regulate  our  speech.  On  the  contrary, 
from  its  conformity  to  thes'e,  and  from  that  alone,  grammar  derives  all  its  au- 
thority and  value.  For,  what  is  the  grammar  of  any  language?  It  is  no  other 
than  a  collection  of  general  observations  methodically  digested,  and  comprising 
all  the  modes  previously  and  independently  established,  by  which  the  significa- 
tions, derivations,  and  combinations  of  words  in  that  language  are  ascertained. 
It  is  of  no  consequence  here  to  what  causes  originally  these  modes  or  fashions 
owe  their  existence,  to  imitation,  to  reflection,  to  affectation,  or  to  caprice;  they 
no  sooner  obtain,  and  become  general,  than  they  are  laws  of  the  language,  and 
the  grammarian's  only  business  is  to  note,  collect,  and  methodize  them.  Nor 
does  this  truth  concern  only  those  more  comprehensive  analogies  or  rules,  which 
affect  whole  classes  of  words ;  such  as  nouns,  verbs,  and  the  other  parts  of  speech ; 
but  it  concerns  every  individual  word,  in  the  inflecting  or  combining  of  which, 
a  particular  mode  has  prevailed.  Every  single  anomaly,  therefore,  though  de- 
parting from  the  rule  assigned  to  the  other  words  of  the  same  class,  and  on  that 
account  called  an  exception,  stands  on  the  same  basis,  on  which  the  rules  of  the 
tongue  are  founded,  custom  having  prescribed  for  it  a  separate  rule.  Thus,  in 
the  two  verbs  call  and  shall,  the  second  person  singular  of  the  former  is  callest, 
agreeably  to  the  general  rule;  the  second  person  singular  of  the  latter  is  shalt, 
agreeably  to  a  particular  rule  affecting  that  verb.  To  say  skallest  for  shalt,  would 
be  as  much  a  barbarism,  though  according  to  the  general  rule,  as  to  say  calt  for 
callest,  which  is  according  to  no  rule. 

Only  let  us  rest  in  these  as  fixed  principles,  that  Use,  or  the  custom  of  speak- 
ing, is  the  sole  original  standard  of  conversation,  and  the  custom  of  writing  is 
the  sole  standard  of  style ;  that  to  the  tribunal  of  use,  as  to  the  supreme  author- 
ity, and  consequently,  in  every  grammatical  or  verbal  controversy,  the  last 
resort,  we  are  entitled  to  appeal  from  the  laws  and  the  decisions  of  grammarians 
and  lexicographers ;  and  that  this  order  of  subordination  ought  never,  on  any 
account,  to  be  reversed. 

But  if  use  be  here  a  matter  of  such  consequence,  it  will  be  necessary,  before 
advancing  any  farther,  to  ascertain  precisely  what  it  is.  We  shall  otherwise  be 
in  danger,  though  we  agree  about  the  name,  of  differing  widely  in  the  notion 
that  we  assign  to  it. 

1.  Reputable  Use.— In  what  extent  then  must  the  word  be  understood?  It 
is  sometimes  called  general  use ;  yet  is  it  not  manifest  that  the  generality  of  people 
speak  and  write  very  badly?  Nay,  is  not  this  a  truth  that  will  be  even  generally 
acknowledged  ?  It  will  be  so ;  and  this  very  acknowledgment  shows  that  many 
terms  and  idioms  may  be  common,  which,  nevertheless,  have  not  the  general 
sanction,  no,  nor  even  the  suffrage  of  those  that  use  them.  The  use  here  spoken 
of,  implies  not  only  currency,  but  vogue.    It  is  properly  reputable  custom. 

This  leads  to  a  distinction  between  good  use  and  bad  use  in  language,  the 
former  of  which  will  be  found  to  have  the  approbation  of  those  who  have  not 
8* 


90  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

themselves  attained  it.  The  far  greater  part  of  mankind  are,  by  reason  of 
poverty  and  other  circumstances,  deprived  of  the  advantages  of  education, 
and  condemned  to  toil  almost  incessantly  in  some  narrow  occupation.  They 
have  neither  the  leisure  nor  the  means  of  attaining  any  knowledge,  except 
what  lies  within  the  contracted  circle  of  their  several  occupations.  As  the 
ideas  which  occupy  their  minds  are  few,  the  portion  of  the  language  known  to 
them  must  be  very  scanty. 

But  it  may  be  said,  and  said  with  truth,  that  in  such  subjects  as  are  within 
their  reach,  many  words  and  idioms  prevail  among  uneducated  people,  which, 
notwithstanding  a  use  pretty  uniform  and  extensive,  are  considered  as  corrupt, 
and  like  counterfeit  money,  though  common,  not  valued.  This  is  the  case  par- 
ticularly with  those  terms  and  phrases  which  critics  have  styled  vulgarisms. 
Their  use  is  not  reputable.  On  the  contrary,  we  always  associate  with  it  such 
notions  of  meanness,  as  suit  the  class  of  men  amongst  whom  chiefly  the  use 
is  found. 

The  currency  of  such  words,  therefore,  is  without  authority  or  weight.  The 
prattle  of  children  has  a  currency,  but,  however  universal  their  manner  of 
corrupting  words  may  be  among  themselves,  it  can  never  establish  what  is 
accounted  use  in  language.  Now,  what  children  are  to  men,  that  precisely  the 
ignorant  are  to  the  knowing. 

From  the  practice  of  those  who  are  conversant  in  any  art,  elegant  or  mechan- 
ical, we  always  take  the  sense  or  the  terms  and  phrases  belonging  to  that  art. 
In  like  manner,  from  the  practice  of  those  who  have  had  a  liberal  education, 
and  are  therefore  presumed  to  be  best  acquainted  with  men  and  things,  we 
judge  of  the  general  use  in  language. 

But  in  what  concerns  the  words  themselves,  their  construction  and  application, 
it  is  of  importance  to  have  some  certain,  steady,  and  well-known  standard  to 
recur  to,  a  standard  which  every  one  has  the  opportunity  to  canvass  and 
examine.  And  this  can  be  no  other  than  authors  of  reputation.  Accordingly 
we  find  that  these  are,  by  universal  consent,  in  actual  possession  of  this  author- 
ity;  as  to  this  tribunal,  when  any  doubt  arises,  the  appeal  is  always  made. 

In  the  English  tongue  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  noted  writings  in  all  the 
various  kinds  of  composition,  prose  and  verse,  serious  and  ludicrous,  grave  and 
familiar.  Agreeably  then  to  this  first  qualification  of  the  term,  we  must  under- 
stand to  be  comprehended  under  general  use,  whatever  modes  of  speech  are  author- 
ized as  good  by  the  writings  of  a  great  number,  if  not  the  majority,  of  celebrated 
authors. 

2.  National  Use.— Another  qualification  of  the  term  use  which  deserves  our 
attention,  is  that  it  must  be  national. 

In  every  locality  there  are  peculiarities  of  dialect,  which  affect  not  only  the 
pronunciation  and  the  accent,  but  even  the  inflection  and  the  combination  of 
words,  whereby  their  idiom  is  distinguished  both  from  that  of  the  nation,  and 
from  that  of  every  other  locality.  The  narrowness  of  the  circle  to  which  the 
currency  of  the  words  and  phrases  of  such  dialects  is  confined,  sufficiently  dis- 
criminates them  from  that  which  is  properly  styled  the  language,  and  which 
commands  a  circulation  incomparably  wider. 

What  has  been  said  of  local  dialects,  may,  with  very  little  variation,  be  applied 
to  professional  dialects,  or  the  cant  which  is  sometimes  observed  to  prevail 
among  those  of  the  same  profession  or  way  of  life.  The  currency  of  the  latter 
cannot  be  so  exactly  circumscribed  as  that  of  the  former,  whose  distinction  is 
purely  local ;  but  their  use  is  not  on  that  account  either  more  extensive  or  more 
reputable.    Let  the  following  serve  as  instances  of  this  kind:    Advice,  in  the 


DICTION— CAMPBELL'S   ESSAY.  91 

commercial  idiom,  means  information  or  intelligence;  nervous,  in  medical 
language,  denotes  having  weak  nerves.  Such  a  use  surely  would  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  establish  the  meanings  here  given  to  be  the  ordinary  and  regular  mean- 
ings of  these  words. 

No  use  of  a  word  can  be  considered  as  national  unless  it  is  found  among  good 
writers  of  all  classes,  as  well  as  in  all  parts  of  England  and  America  in  which 
the  English  language  is  spoken. 

3.  Present  Use. — But  there  will  naturally  arise  here  another  question,  Is  not 
use,  even  good  and  national  use,  in  the  same  country,  different  in  different 
periods  ?  And  if  so,  to  the  usage  of  what  period  shall  we  'attach  ourselves,  as 
the  proper  rule?  If  you  say  the  present,  as  it  may  reasonably  be  expected  that 
you  will,  the  difficulty  is  not  entirely  removed.  In  what  extent  of  signification 
must  we  understand  the  word  present?  How  far  may  we  safely  range  in  quest 
of  authorities  ?  or,  at  what  distance  backwards  from  this  moment  are  authors 
still  to  be  accounted  as  possessing  a  legislative  voice  in  language?  To  this  it  is 
difficult,  to  give  an  answer  with  all  the  precision  that  might  be  desired.  Yet  it 
is  certain,  that  when  we  are  in  search  of  precedents  for  any  word  or  idiom,  there 
are  certain  bounds  beyond  which  we  cannot  go  with  safety. 

It  is  safest  for  an  author  to  consider  those  words  and  idioms  as  obsolete,  which 
have  been  disused  by  all  good  authors,  for  a  longer  period  than  the  ordinary 
age  of  man  extends  to.  It  is  not  by  ancient,  but  by  present  use,  that  our  diction 
must  be  regulated.  And  that  use  can  never  be  denominated  present,  which  has 
been  laid  aside  time  immemorial,  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  falls 
not  within  the  knowledge  or  remembrance  of  any  now  living. 

I  have  purposely  avoided  the  expressions  recent  use  and  modern  use,  as  these 
seem  to  stand  in  direct  opposition  to  what  is  ancient.  The  word  present,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  for  its  proper  contrary,  not  ancient,  but  obsolete.  Besides,  though 
I  have  acknowledged  language  to  be  a  species  of  mode  or  fashion,  as  doubtless  it 
is,  yet  being  much  more  permanent  than  articles  of  apparel,  furniture,  and  the 
like,  that,  in  regard  to  their  form,  are  under  the  dominion  of  that  inconstant 
power,  I  have  avoided  also  using  the  words  fashionable  and  modish,  which  but 
too  generally  convey  the  ilea  of  novelty  and  levity.  Words,  therefore,  are  by 
no  means  to  be  accounted  the  worst  for  being  old,  if  they  are  not  obsolete; 
neither  is  any  word  the  better  for  being  new.  On  the  contrary,  some  time  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  constitute  that  custom  or  use,  on  which  the  establish- 
ment of  words  depends. 

If  we  recur  to  the  standard  already  assigned,  namely,  the  writings  of  a 
plurality  of  celebrated  authors;  there  will  be  no  scope  for  the  comprehension 
of  words  and  idioms  which  can  be  denominated  novel  and  upstart.  It  must 
be  owned,  that  we  often  meet  with  such  terms  and  phrases,  in  newspapers  and 
other  periodicals.  But  this  is  not  of  itself  sufficient  to  give  them  the  stamp  of 
authority.  Such  words  and  phrases  are  but  the  insects  of  a  season  at  the  most. 
The  popular  fancy,  always  fickle,  is  just  as  prompt  to  drop  such  words,  as  it  was 
to  take  them  up ;  and  not  one  of  a  hundred  survives  the  particular  occasion 
which  gave  it  birth. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SENTENCES. 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  will  make 
complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  considered  under  the  following  heads:  1. 
Kinds  of  Sentences ;  2.  Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Sen- 
tences. 

I.  KINDS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Grammatical  Classification.— Sentences,  considered  grammatically,  are 
divided  into  Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex. 

Rhetorical  Classification. —  Sentences,  considered  rhetori- 
cally, are  divided  into  Periodic,  Loose,  Balanced,  Short,  and 
Long. 

1.  Periodic  Sentences. 

A  Periodic  Sentence  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  that  it 
does  not  give  a  complete  meaning  until  the  very  close.  The 
main  point  is  kept  in  suspense  until  all  the  subsidiary  mem- 
bers and  clauses  are  disposed  of. 

Example  from  Temple.—  The  following,  from  Sir  William  Temple, 
is  an  example  of  a  periodic  sentence. 

If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as  well  as  your  own ; 
if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honor,  and  how  many  die  without  name  or 
children :  how  little  beauty  we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we  hear  of;  how  many 
diseases,  and  how  much  poverty  there  is  in  the  world  ;  you  will  fall  down  upon 
your  knees,  and,  instead  of  repining  at  your  affliction,  will  admire  so  many 
blessings  which  you  have  received  at  the  hand  of  God. 


Example  from  Milton.  —  If  the  opening  lines  of  Paradise  Lost  were 
to  stop  at  "  heavenly  Muse,"  in  the  sixth  line,  the  sentence  Mould 

92 


SENTENCES— LOOSE.  93 

be  periodic.     Short  of  these  words  there  is  no  point  where  there 
would  be  a  completed  meaning. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  Muse. 

Example  Continued.—  The  author,  however,  does  not  stop  the  sen- 
tence here,  but  goes  on  for  eleven  lines  farther,  adding  clause  upon 
clause,  and  thought  upon  thought,  until  the  periodic  character  of 
the  sentence  disappears  altogether.  The  sentence  does  not  actually 
stop  until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  line,  although  there  are  before 
that  several  places  where  a  close  might  be  made  without  incom- 
pleteness.   Thus : 

Sing,  heavenly  Muse,  |  that  on  the  secret  top 

Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  didst  inspire 

That  shepherd,  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed, 

In  the  beginning  how  the  heaven  and  earth 

Rose  out  of  chaos :  |  or,  if  Sion  hill 

Delight  thee  more,  and  Siloa's  brook  that  flowed 

Fast  by  the  oracle  of  God,  I  thence 

Invoke  thy  aid  to  my  adventurous  song,  | 

That  with  no  middle  flight  intends  to  soar 

Above  the  Aonian  mount.  |  while  it  pursues 

Things  unattempted  yet  in  prose  or  rhyme. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  completed  meaning  would  have  been  given, 
had  the  sentence  stopped  at  "chaos,"  at  "song,"  or  at  "mount." 

2.  Loose  Sentences. 

A  Loose  Sentence  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  that  it 
may  be  brought  to  a  close  at  two  or  more  different  places, 
and  in  each  case  give  a  completed  meaning. 

Uses  of  the  Loose  Sentence.— A  Loose  Sentence  is  not  necessarily 
faulty.  When  the  sentences  are  all  entirely  periodic  in  structure, 
the  composition  becomes  monotonous  and  stiff.  A  proper  variety 
requires,  in  long  pieces  especially,  that  periodic  sentences  should  be 
interspersed  occasionally  with  those  that  are  loose  in  their  structure. 

Dangers  of  the  Loose  Sentence. —  The  danger  with  most  writers  is 
that  of  having  too  many  loose  sentences,  and  of  indulging  in  this 


94  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

mode  of  expression  through  mere  carelessness.  The  proper  man- 
agement of  the  loose  sentence,  where  it  is  used,  requires  much  care 
and  skill.  Young  and  inexperienced  writers  should  aim  almost  uni- 
formly to  make  their  sentences  periodic. 

Difference  of  Writers  in  this  Kespect. — Writers  differ  much  in  the 
formation  of  their  sentences  in  this  respect.  In  modern  writings, 
the  short,  rounded  period  is  much  more  common  than  it  was  some 
centuries  ago.  Much  of  the  solemn  pomp  and  majestic  stateliness 
of  Milton's  style,  whether  in  prose  or  verse,  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
his  sentences  are  rarely  periodic.  It  would  be  a  mistake,  however, 
to  suppose,  on  this  account,  that  they  are  careless  or  unstudied. 
On  the  contrary,  they  are  thoroughly  artistic,  and  they  show  as 
much  studious  care  as  the  most  highly  finished  periods  of  Ma- 
caul  ay. 

The  following  is  an  example  from  Milton: 

Then  amidst  the  hymns  and  hallelujahs  of  saints,  some  one  may  perhaps 
be  heard  offering,  at  high  strains  in  new  and  lofty  measures,  to  sing  and  cele- 
brate thy  divine  mercies,  and  marvellous  judgments  in  this  land  throughout 
all  ages;  whereby  this  great  and  warlike  nation,  instructed  and  inured  to  the 
fervent  and  continual  practice  of  truth  and  righteousness,  and  casting  far  from 
her  the  rags  of  her  old  vices,  may  press  on  hard  to  that  high  and  happy  emula- 
tion to  be  found  the  soberest,  wisest,  and  most  Christian  people  at  that  day, 
when  Thou,  the  eternal  and  shortly  expected  King,  shalt  open  the  clouds  to 
judge  the  several  kingdoms  of  the  world,  and  distributing  national  honors  and 
rewards  to  religious  and  just  commonwealths,  shalt  put  an  end  to  all  earthly 
tyrannies,  proclaiming  thy  universal  and  mild  monarchy  through  heaven  and 
earth;  where  they,  undoubtedly,  that  by  their  labors,  counsels,  and  prayers, 
have  been  earnest  for  the  common  good  of  their  religion  and  their  country, 
shall  receive  above  the  inferior  orders  of  the  blessed  the  regal  addition  of  prin- 
cipalities, legions,  and  thrones  into  their  glorious  titles,  and,  in  supereminence 
of  beatific  vision,  progressing  the  dateless  and  irrevoluble  circle  of  eternity, 
shall  clasp  inseparable  hands  with  joy  and  bliss,  in  overmeasure  forever. 

Compare  this  with  the  following  from  Macaulay : 

An  acre  in  Middlesex  is  worth  a  principality  in  Utopia.  The  smallest  actual 
good  is  better  than  the  most  magnificent  promises  of  impossibilities.  The  wise 
man  of  the  Stoics  would,  no  doubt,  be  a  grander  object  than  a  steam-engine. 
But  there  are  steam-engines,  and  the  wise  man  of  the  Stoics  is  yet  to  be  born. 
A  philosophy  which  should  enable  a  man  to  feel  perfectly  happy  while  in 
agonies  of  pain,  may  be  better  than  a  philosophy  which  assuages  pain.  But 
we  know  that  there  are  remedies  which  will  assuage  pain ;  and  we  know  that 
the  ancient  sages  liked  the  tooth-ache  just  as  little  as  their  neighbors. 

The  following  paragraph  from  Channing  will  illustrate  the  same 
point : 


SENTENCES— LOOSE.  95 

Beauty  is  an  all-pervading  presence.  It  unfolds  in  the  numberless  flowers  of 
the  spring.  It  waves  in  the  branches  of  the  trees  and  the  green  blades  of  grass. 
It  haunts  the  depths  of  the  earth  and  sea,  and  gleams  out  in  the  hues  of  the 
shell  and  the  precious  stone.  And  not  only  these  minute  objects,  but  the  ocean, 
the  mountains,  the  clouds,  the  heavens,  the  stars,  the  rising  and  setting  sun, 
all  overflow  with  beauty.  The  universe  is  its  temple ;  and  those  men  who  are 
alive  to  it,  cannot  lift  up  their  eyes  without  feeling  themselves  encompassed 
with  it  on  every  side. 

Recommendation  to  Beginners. —  In  a  majority  of  cases,  particu- 
larly with  careless  writers,  if  a  sentence  is  not  periodic,  it  is  faulty. 
It  is  well  therefore  for  beginners  to  make  a  special  study  of  sen- 
tences in  reference  to  this  point,  and  to  exercise  themselves  in  re- 
constructing loose  sentences  so  as  to  give  them  a  periodic  character. 

Example. — Take  the  following  : 

We  came  to  our  journey's  end,  |  at  last,  |  with  no  small  difficulty,  |  after  much 
fatigue,  I  through  deep  roads,  |  and  bad  weather. 

This  is  a  very  loose  sentence,  there  being  no  less  than  five  differ- 
ent places,  at  any  one  of  which  the  sentence  might  be  terminated, 
so  as  to  be  grammatically  complete.  The  sentence  may  be  recon- 
structed and  made  periodic,  as  follows: 

At  last,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads,  and  bad  weather,  we  came, 
with  no  small  difficulty,  to  our  journey's  end. 

Archbishop  Trench,  justly  celebrated  for  his  contributions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  English  tongue,  is  sometimes  exceedingly  careless 
in  the  construction  of  his  sentences.  The  following  is  taken  from 
the  preface  to  his  "  Studies  in  the  Gospels :  " 

Gathering  up  lately  a  portion  of  what  I  had  written,  for  publication,  I  have 
given  it  as  careful  a  revision  as  my  leisure  would  allow,  have  indeed  in  many 
parts  rewritten  it,  seeking  to  profit  by  the  results  of  the  latest  criticism,  as  far  as 
I  have  been  able  to  acquaint  myself  with  them. 

No  one  versed  in  composition  can  read  this  sentence  without  feel- 
ing that  it  is  put  together  very  loosely.  First,  the  words  "  for  pub- 
lication "  are  out  of  place.  Standing  where  they  do,  they  make  the 
author  say  that  he  "had  written  for  publication,"  which  is  just  the 
opposite  of  what  he  means.  His  meaning  is  that  he  had  written  a 
good  many  things,  and  he  now  gathers  them  up  for  publication.  By 
transposing  these  words  to  their  proper  place,  and  by  dividing  the 
passage  into  two  distinct  sentences,  the  whole  becomes  more  clear 
to  the  apprehension  of  the  reader. 


96  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Gathering  up  lately  for  publication  a  portion  of  what  I  had  written,  I  have 
given  it  as  careful  a  revision  as  my  leisure  would  allow.  I  have  indeed  in  many 
parts  rewritten  it,  seeking  to  profit  by  the  results  of  the  latest  criticism,  as  far  a£ 
I  have  been  able  to  acquaint  myself  with  them. 

Another  Example  from  Trench.  — The  sentence  following  the  one 
already  quoted  is  even  more  faulty  in  construction.    It  is  as  follows : 

For  my  labors  I  shall  be  abundantly  repaid,  if  now,  when  so  many  controver- 
sies are  drawing  away  the  Christian  student  from  the  rich  and  quiet  pastures  of 
Scripture  to  other  fields,  not  perhaps  barren,  but  which  can  yield  no  such  nour- 
ishment as  these  do,  I  shall  have  contributed  aught  to  detain  any  among  tnem. 

In  attempting  to  give  a  periodic  form  to  a  loose  sentence  of  this 
kind,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  reconstruct  the  sentence  entirely. 
The  best  perhaps  that  can  be  done,  in  the  present  instance,  is  to 
make  it  read  thus : 

For  my  labors  I  shall  be  abundantly  repaid,  if  I  shall  have  contributed  aught 
to  detain  the  Christian  student  among  the  rich  and  quiet  pastures  of  Scripture, 
now  when  so  many  controversies  are  drawing  him  away  to  other  fields,  not  per- 
haps barren,  but  which  can  yield  no  such  nourishment  as  these  do. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  following  Loose  Sentences  are  to  be  reconstructed,  so  as  to  become 
Periodic] 

1.  Shaftesbury's  strength  lay  in  reasoning  and  sentiment,  more 
than  in  description ;  however  much  his  descriptions  have  been  ad- 
mired. 

2.  They  aspired  to  gaze  full  on  the  intolerable  brightness  of  the 
Deity,  instead  of  catching  occasional  glimpses  of  him  through  an 
obscuring  veil. 

3.  They  despised  all  the  accomplishments  and  all  the  dignities  of 
the  world,  confident  of  the  favor  of  God. 

4.  Milton  always  selected  for  himself  the  boldest  literary  services, 
that  he  might  shake  the  foundations  of  debasing  sentiments  more 
effectually. 

5.  Milton's  nature  selected  and  drew  to  itself  whatever  was  great 
and  good  from  the  parliament  and  from  the  court,  from  the  con- 
venticle and  from  the  cloister,  from  the  gloomy  and  sepulchral  circles 
of  the  Roundheads  and  from  the  Christmas  revel  of  the  hospitable 
Cavalier. 

6.  She  had  probably  already  filled  her  pitcher,  when  the  stranger 
at  the  well,  whom  she  may  have  seen  only  to  avoid,  for  she  recog- 


EXAMPLES   FOR    PRACTICE.  97 

nized  in  him  those  unmistakable  features  of  Jewish  physiognomy 
with  which  the  Samaritans  had  nothing  in  common,  to  her  surprise 
addressed  her. 

7.  It  is  certain  that  his  contrivances  seldom  failed  to  serve  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  designed,  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
the  humanity  of  some  of  them. 

8.  Burke's  mind,  at  once  philosophical  and  poetical,  found  some- 
thing to  instruct  and  to  delight,  in  every  part  of  those  huge  bales  of 
Indian  information,  which  repelled  almost  all  other  readers. 

9.  When  Hastings  was  first  impeached,  if  he  had  at  once  pleaded 
guilty,  and  paid  a  fine  of  fifty  thousand  pounds,(he  would  have  been 
better  off,  in  every  thing  except  character. 

10.  He  would  still  have  had  a  moderate  competence,  after  all  his 
losses,  if  he  had  practised  a  strict  economy. 

11.  It  is  to  the  citizens,  —  our  object,  to  assure  to  our  country  a 
tranquil  future,  —  not  as  ordering,  but  as  offering  patriotic  counsel, 
we  address  ourselves:  to  the  end  that^as  in  the  humblest  dwelling, 
the  son  may  succeed  the  father  in  peace  and  quiet  on  the  throne. 

12.  Some  wished  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  defeated  general; 
others  laughed  and  encouraged  her ;  and  still  others,  men  in  blue 
blouses  and  heavy  hob-nailed  shoes,  who  were  regular  customers  at 
the  Green  Hat  with  their  wagons  and  horses,  and  bore  no  good-will 
to  the  rope-dancers,  because  they  interfered  with  their  accustomed 
comfort,  spoke  low  of  "rabble,"  and  "turn  them  out,"  a  sentiment 
which  in  its  turn  displeased  a  few  enthusiastic  admirers  of  high 
art. 

13.  Whether  she  is  still  wandering  about  in  the  desert,  like  Lady 
Stanhope,  with  a  man  who  had  ceased,  when  Sydney  met  them,  to 
exhibit  the  devotion  of  a  lover,  in  trained  skirts,  with  the  latest  pat- 
tern gloves  and  bonnet,  with  Marie  Stuart  points,  or  whether  she 
sickened  of  the  Orient  and  came  back  to  Europe,  is  not  known. 

14.  His  habitation  Hs  some  poor  thatched  roof,  distinguished  from 
his  barn  by  the  loop-holes  that  let  out  smoke,  which  the  rain  had 
long  since  washed  through,  but  for  the  double  ceiling  of  bacon  on 
the  inside,  which  has  hung  there  from  his  grandsire's  time,  and  is 
yet  to  make  rashers  for  posterity. 

15.  The  new  philosophy  has  introduced  so  great  a  correspondence 
between  men  of  learning  and  men  of  business;  which  has  also  been 
increased  by  other  accidents  amongst  the  masters  of  other  learned 
professions  ;  and  that  pedantry  which  formerly  was  almost  universal 

9  G 


\ 


98  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

is  now  in  a  great  measure  disused,  especially  amongst  the  young 
men,  who  are  taught  in  the  universities  to  laugh  at  that  frequent 
citation  of  scraps  of  Latin  in  common  discourse,  or  upon  arguments 
that  do  not  require  it;  and  that  nauseous  ostentation  of  reading  and 
scholarship  in  public  companies,  which  formerly  was  so  much  in 
fashion. 

16.  An  unseen  hand  sweeps  over  the  keys  of  the  mighty  instru- 
ment, which,  after  centuries  of  study,  men  are  just  beginning  to 
understand,  and  the  listening  ear  catches  the  swell  of  the  deep  notes 
of  triumph,  while  glad  notes  of  rejoicing  and  bitter  sounds  of  woe 
make  no  discord,  called  forth  by  the  master-hand. 

17.  The  sides  of  the  crater  went  sheer  down  to  a  great  depth, 
enclosing  a  black  abyss  which,  in  the  first  excitement  of  the  scene, 
the  startled  fancy  might  well  imagine  extending  to  the  bowels  of 
the  earth,  from  which  there  came  rolling  up  vast  clouds,  dense, 
black,  sulphurous,  which  at  times  completely  encircled  them,  shut- 
ting out  everything  from  view,  filling  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth  with 
fumes  of  brimstone,  forcing  them  to  hold  the  tails  of  their  coats 
or  the  skirts  (it's  all  the  same  thing)  over  their  faces,  so  as  not  to 
be  altogether  suffocated,  while  again  after  a  while  a  fierce  blast  of 
wind  driving  downward  would  hurl  the  smoke  away,  and  dashing 
it  against  the  other  side  of  the  crater,  gather  it  up  in  dense  volumes 
of  blackest  smoke  in  thick  clouds  which  rolled  up  the  flinty  cliffs, 
and  reaching  the  summit  bounded  fiercely  oat  into  the  sky,  to  pass 
on  and  be  seen  from  afar  as  that  dread  pennant  of  Vesuvius,  which 
is  the  sign  and  symbol  of  its  mastery  over  the  earth  around  it  and 
the  inhabitants  thereof,  ever  changing  and  in  all  its  changes  watched 
with  awe  by  fearful  men  who  read  in  those  changes  their  own  fate, 
now  taking  heart  as  they  see  it  more  tenuous  in  its  consistency, 
anon  shuddering  as  they  see  it  gathering  in  denser  folds,  and  finally 
awe-stricken  and  all  overcome  as  they  see  the  thick  black  cloud 
rise  proudly  up  to  heaven  in  a  long  straight  column  at  whose  upper 
termination  the  colossal  pillar  spreads  itself  out  and  shows  to  the 
startled  gaze  the  dread  symbol  of  the  cyprees-tree  the  herald  of 
earthquakes,  eruptions,  and — The  Bodge  Club. 

3.  Balanced  Sentences. 

A  Balanced  Sentence  is  one  containing  two  clauses  which 
are  similar  in  form  and  to  some  extent  contrasted  in  mean- 


^yQ^A^^t^yy^^v 


SENTENCES— BALANCED.  99 

ing.     A  Balanced  Sentence  is  seldom  loose,  though  not  neces- 
sarily periodic. 

Dr.  Johnson  abounds  in  sentences  of  this  kind.  The  following  are 
examples : 

The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied,  that  of  Pope  is  cautious  and  uni- 
form. Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of  his  own  mind,  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to 
his  own  rule  of  composition.  Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid,  Pope 
is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  level.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising 
into  inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegeta- 
tion ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  shaven  by  the  scythe,  and  levelled  by  the  roller. 

Dryden  knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and  Pope  in  his  local  man- 
ners. The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehensive  speculation,  and 
those  of  Pope  by  minute  attention.  There  is  more  dignity  in  the  knowledge  of 
Dryden,  and  more  certainty  in  that  of  Pope. 

The  man  is  little  to  be  envied  whose  patriotism  would  not  gain  force  on  the 
plains  of  Marathon,  or  whose  piety  would  not  grow  warmer  among  the  ruins 
of  Iona. 

Junius  affords  numerous  examples : 

But,  my  lord,  you  may  qtiit  the  field  of  business,  though  not  the  field  of  danger ; 
and,  though  you  cannot  be  safe,  you  may  cease  to  be  ridiculous. 

They  are  still  base  enough  to  encourage  the  follies  of  your  age,  as  they  once 
did  the  vices  of  your  youth. 

Even  now  they  tell  you,  that  as  you  lived  without  virtue  you  should  die  with- 
out repentance. 

Pope.—  Perhaps  no  English  writer  has  given  more  finished  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  of  sentence  than  Pope,  and  that  both  in  his 
poetry  and  in  his  prose. 

Worth  makes  the  man,  the  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist ;  in  the  one,  we  most 
admire  the  man ;  in  the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with  a  commanding 
impetuosity ;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer  scatters  with  a 
generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnificence.  Homer,  like 
the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  sudden  overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its 
banks,  with  a  constant  stream.  And  when  we  fook  upon  their  machines,  Homer 
seems  like  his  own  Jupiter,  in  his  terrors,  shaking  Olympus,  scattering  the  light- 
nings, and  firing  the  heavens ;  Virgil,  like  the  same  power,  in  his  benevolence, 
counselling  with  the  gods,  laying  plans  for  empires,  and  ordering  his  whole 
creation. 

Various  Sources.— The    following    examples    are    from    various 


In  peace,  children  bury  their  parents ;  in  war,  parents  bury  their  children. 
If  you  wish  to  enrioh  a  person,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to  diminish 
his  desires. 


100  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Words  are  the  counters  of  wise  men.  and  the  money  of  fools. 

A  juggler  is  a  wit  in  things,  and  a  wit  a  juggler  in  words. 

When  we  meet  an  apparent  error  in  a  good  author,  we  are  to  presume  ourselves 
ignorant  of  his  understanding,  until  we  are  certain  that  we  understand  his  ig- 
norance. 

Charity  creates  much  of  the  misery  it  relieves,  but  does  not  relieve  all  the 
misery  it  creates. 

Not  that  I  loved  Csesar  less,  but  that  I  loved  Rome  more. 

Use  of  the  Balanced  Sentence.  —  The  Balanced  Sentence 
is  well  suited  to  satire  and  epigram,  and  to  essays  in  which 
characters  are  delineated,  or  subjects  are  set  off  by  contrast. 
It  may  often  be  used  also  in  declamation  and  oratory.  But 
it  is  rarely  proper  in  narrative,  or  in  description. 

Hebrew  Poetry. —  Balanced  sentences  of  a  somewhat  peculiar  kind 
are  to  be  found  in  Hebrew  poetry.  The  sort  of  construction  here 
referred  to  is  called  Parallelism,  and  is  an  invariable  characteristic 
of  Hebrew  verse. 

A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father :  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his 
mother. 

Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing:  but  righteousness  delivereth  from 
death. 

The  Lord  will  not  suffer  the  soul  of  the  righteous  to  famish :  but  he  casteth 
away  the  substance  of  the  wicked. 

He  becometh  poor  that  dealeth  with  a  slack  hand :  but  the  hand  of  the  dili- 
gent maketh  rich. 

He  that  gathereth  in  summer  is  a  wise  son :  but  he  that  sleepeth  in  harvest  is 
a  son  that  causeth  shame. 

Blessings  are  upon  the  head  of  the  just:  but  violence  covereth  the  mouth  of  the 
wicked. 

The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed :  but  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot. 

The  book  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Song  of  Solomon,  Eccle- 
siastes,  a  large  part  of  the  Prophetical  books,  and  the  poetical  por- 
tions of  all  the  other  books,  are  made  up  entirely  of  these  paral- 
lelisms. 

4.  Short  and  Long  Sentences. 

Short  and  Long. — The  division  of  sentences  into  Short  and  Long 
does  not  require  definition.  The  terms  explain  themselves.  It  is 
well,  however,  to  notice  the  rhetorical  effect  produced  by  each. 

Rhetorical  Effect. — A  fact  or  a  truth,  expressed  in  several  short 
detached  sentences,  is  usually  more  easily  understood  than  when 


SENTENCES— SHORT  AND    LONG.  101 

expressed  in  one  long,  involved  sentence.  Short  sentences  also  give 
sprightliness  and  animation  to  the  style.  On  the  other  hand,  too 
great  a  succession  of  short  sentences  becomes  monotonous  and  tire- 
some. A  long  sentence  also,  if  well  constructed,  gives  a  fine  oppor- 
tunity for  climax. 

French  and  German  Writers. — French  writers  generally  are  char- 
acterized by  their  fondness  for  short  sentences,  while  Germans 
are  equally  remarkable  for  sentences  which  are  long,  involved,  and 
cumbersome. 

Bishop  Doane. — Among  American  writers  of  note,  Bishop  Doane 
habitually  cast  his  thoughts  into  the  form  of  brief,  epigrammatic 
sentences,  and  not  unfrequently  carried  Ms  partiality  for  this  style 
of  writing  to  an  extreme.  The  following  are  examples  from  his 
sermons : 

"  The  church's  work  is  spirit-work.  Not  to  be  done  amid  the  heat  and  noise  of 
controversy ;  not  to  be  done  through  the  polemic  rage  of  pamphlets,  and  of  news- 
papers ;  not  to  be  done  in  the  Conventions  and  Councils  of  the  Church.  It  must 
be  done  in  private.  It  must  be  done  in  the  closet.  It  must  be  done  in  the  sanc- 
tuary. It  must  be  done  in  schools.  It  must  be  done  in  families.  It  must  be 
done  in  parishes.  It  must  be  done  in  the  room  of  sickness.  It  must  be  done  in 
the  death  chamber." 

"  Look  at  the  Deacon  Stephen.  His  faithful  proclamation  of  the  word  offends 
the  Jews.  They  cannot  combat  him  with  reason  or  with  truth.  They  hire 
false  witnesses.  They  stir  the  people  up.  They  set  him  before  the  Council. 
They  condemn  him  falsely.  They  cast  him  from  the  city.  They  bind,  they 
strip,  they  stone  him.  He  stands.  He  looks  to  heaven.  He  prays  for  them. 
He  dies." 

Rule  on  the  Subject. — In  regard  to  the  use  of  these  several 
kinds  of  sentences,  Periodic  and  Loose,  Balanced,  Short  and 
Long,  the  only  general  rule  that  can  be  given  is  to  study 
variety. 

The  ear  tires  of  any  one  kind  of  sentences,  when  long  continued. 
The  style  becomes  monotonous.  It  is  better  even  to  introduce 
occasionally  a  sentence  that  by  itself  would  be  faulty,  than  to  have 
sentences  in  long  succession  all  formed  on  the  same  model,  however 
excellent  that  model  may  be. 

Note.  The  practice  of  reconstructing  sentences,  resolving  long  complex  sen- 
tences into  short  ones,  and  combining  short  independent  sentences  into  long 
connected  ones,  is  a  very  useful  exercise  for  the  student.    In  making  these 
changes,  a  slight  change  of  words  is  sometimes  necessary.    It  is  also  necessary 
9* 


102  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

occasionally  to  introduce  a  new  word,  such  as  but,  and,  therefore,  however,  and 
the  like.  The  sentences  thus  reconstructed  are  not  necessarily  improved  there- 
by. The  object  of  the  exercise  is  to  learn  how  to  vary  the  form  of  a  sentence 
and  yet  express  clearly  the  meaning.  Whether  in  any  particular  case  the  form 
should  be  thus  changed  must  be  left  to  the  taste  and  judgment  of  the  writer. 

Example.  "  Few  words  she  uttered ;  and  they  were  all  expressive  of  some 
inward  grief  which  she  cared  not  to  reveal ;  but  sighs  and  groans  were  the 
chief  vent  which  she  gave  to  her  despondency,  and  which,  though  they  dis- 
covered her  sorrows,  were  never  able  tc  ease  or  assuage  them." 

Sentence  Reconstructed.  Few  words  she  uttered ;  and  they  were  all  expressive 
of  some  inward  grief  which  she  cared  not  to  reveal.  Sighs  and  groans,  however, 
were  the  chief  vent  which  she  gave  to  her  despondency.  These,  though  they 
discovered  her  sorrows,  were  never  able  to  ease  or  assuage  them. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Note.  The  examples  whioh  follow  are  partly  long  sentences  which  are  to  be 
resolved  into  short  ones,  and  partly  short  sentences  which  are  to  be  combined 
into  long  ones.] 

1.  I  know  that  that  prayer  will  be  answered.  I  know  that  that 
love  will  be  shed  abroad.  I  know  that  it  will  swell  all  hearts.  I 
know  that  it  will  kindle  every  tongue.  I  know  that  it  will  be  in 
every  hand  more  than  a  sword  of  fire. 

2.  The  countess  was  prevailed  on  by  her  husband,  the  mortal 
enemy  of  Essex,  not  to  execute  the  commission;  and  Elizabeth, 
who  still  expected  that  her  favorite  would  make  this  last  appeal  to 
her  tenderness,  and  who  ascribed  the  neglect  of  it  to  his  invincible 
obstinacy,  was,  after  much  delay  and  many  internal  conflicts,  pushed 
by  resentment  and  policy  to  sign  the  warrant  for  his  execution. 
[Divide  into  four  sentences.] 

3.  The  wise  ministers  and  brave  warriors  who  flourished  under 
her  reign, | share  the  praise  of  her  success.  (Instead,  however,  of 
lessening  the  applause  due  to  her,  they  make  great  addition  to  it. 
[Combine  into  one  sentence.] 

4.  As  the  disposition  to  criticise,  and  to  be  disgusted,  is,  perhaps, 
taken  up  originally  by  imitation,  and  is,  unawares,  grown  into  a 
habit,  which,  though  at  present  strong,  may  nevertheless  be  cured, 
when  those  who  have  it  are  convinced  of  its  bad  effects  on  their  fe- 
licity ;  I  hope  this  little  admonition  may  be  of  service  to  them,  and 
put  them  on  changing  a  habit,  which,  though  in  the  exercise  it  is 
chiefly  an  act  of  imagination,  yet  has  serious  consequences  in  life, 
as  it  brings  on  real  griefs  and  misfortunes. 

5.  The  land  journey  was  no  longer  thought  of.  The  Greeks  were 
too  well  known.     They  had  but  recently  massacred  the  Latins  in 


SENTENCES— SHORT  AND    LONG.  103 

Constantinople.  Vessels  were  required  for  the  voyage  by  sea.  The 
Venetians  were  applied  to.  The  traders  took  advantage  of  the 
necessity  of  the  Crusaders.  They  would  not  supply  them  with 
transports  under  eighty-five  thousand  marks  of  silver.  They  chose 
to  take  a  share  in  the  Crusade.  In  return  they  stipulated  for  a 
moiety  of  the  conquests. 

6.  Many  a  wife  sinks  into  the  character  of  a  mere  housekeeper. 
The  husband  accepts  the  arrangemeut.  One  is  not  expected  to 
chat  with  one's  housekeeper.  One  is  not  expected  to  stay  in  of  an 
evening  to  please  her.  This  consideration  explains  a  phenomenon 
exhibited  in  some  households. 

7.  I  am  satisfied.  The  ship  sails  on.  We  cannot  see,  but  we  can 
dream.  We  have  no  work,  no  pain.  I  like  the  ship.  I  like  the 
voyage.     I  like  the  company.     I  am  content. 

8.  The  story  of  the  waxen  wings  that  were  melted  by  the  sun  is 
no  unmeaning  fable,  and  the  continued  efforts  made  to  invent  a  bal- 
loon, or  other  contrivances  for  aerial  navigation,  is  but  an  expression 
of  the  great  tendency  of  humanity  to  reach  upward  and  beyond  for 
something  more  than  it  sees. 

9.  Antony  has  done  his  part.  He  holds  the  gorgeous  East  in  fee. 
He  has  avenged  Crassus.  He  will  make  kings,  though  he  be  none. 
He  is  amusing  himself,  and  Rome  must  bear  with  him.  He  has  his 
griefs  as  well  as  Caesar.  Let  the  sword  settle  their  disputes.  But 
he  is  no  longer  the  man  to  leave  Cleopatra  behind.  She  sails  with 
him,  and  his  countrymen  proclaim  how  low  he  has  fallen. 

10.  The  Englishman  is  taciturn.  The  Frenchman  is  vivacious. 
The  Spaniard  is  morose.    The  American  is  talkative. 

11.  The  time  is  short.  Much  remains  to  be  done.  Prepare  for 
action. 

12.  Novels  as  a  class  are  injurious  to  young  people.  They  destroy 
the  taste  for  more  solid  reading.  They  cultivate  the  emotions  to  an 
undue  extent.     They  convey  false  impressions  of  life. 

13.  A  heavy  cannonade  was  kept  up  for  five  consecutive  hours. 
At  last  the  line  was  broken.  The  troops  retreated  in  the  best  possi- 
ble order. 

14.  Monkeys  belong  to  the  order  of  bimanae,  or  animals  posses- 
sing two  hands,  living  generally  in  trees,  and  possessing  great  agility 
and  strength,  although  some  of  them  are  remarkably  small,  and  none 
of  them  attain  to  the  great  size  of  the  elephant,  which  is,  perhaps, 
the  largest  animal  extant. 


104  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

II.    RULES   FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF  SENTENCES. 
RULE  I.— CLEARNESS. 

The  Words  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  Meaning  cannot  be 
mistaken. 

The  Order  of  the  Words  Important.  —  Care  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  words  is  especially  important  in  a  language  like  the  English, 
which  has  so  few  grammatical  terminations.  In  Latin  and  Greek, 
the  relation  of  a  word  to  the  other  words  of  the  sentence  is  known 
at  once  by  its  form.  But  in  English  we  have  to  indicate  these  rela- 
tions by  the  place  in  which  the  word  stands. 

Example.  Were  we  to  say,  "  The  boy  the  girl  sees,"  there  is  nothing  to  show 
which  noun  is  the  subject  and  which  the  object  of  "  sees."  If  we  turn  the  words 
into  Latin,  leaving  them  in  the  same  order  that  they  now  have,  the  meaning  is 
made  plain  by  the  termination  of  the  nouns,  and  is  changed  at  will  by  a  change 
of  the  termination.  Puerpuellam  videl  means  "  The  boy  sees  the  girl."  Puerum 
puella  videl  means  "  The  girl  sees  the  boy."  What  we  indicate  in  Latin  by  the 
form  of  a  word,  we  are  obliged  in  English  to  indicate  by  its  position.  Hence 
it  becomes  of  great  importance  in  English  composition  to  arrange  the  words  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  meaning  will  be  obvious,  and  cannot  be  misunderstood. 

Let  us  proceed  to  some  particulars. 

1.  Position  of  the  Adverbs. 

Ambiguity  is  often  produced  by  the  improper  position  of  the  ad- 
verbs. Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  adverb  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  word  which  it  qualifies,  and  in  such  a  position,  either  before 
or  after,  that  it  cannot  easily  be  taken  to  qualify  any  other  word. 

"  I  ot%  bring  forward  some  things."—  Dean  Afford,  Here,  "  only  "  is  so  placed 
as  to  qualify  "  bring,"  and  raises  the  query,  what  else  the  author  proposed  to  do, 
or  could  do,  besides  bringing  these  things  forward.  What  he  intended  to  say, 
was  that  these  things  were  only  a  part  of  what  he  had  at  his  disposal.  The 
"  only  "  has  reference  to  the  "  some  things,"  and  should  be  placed  as  near  to  those 
words  as  possible.  If  placed  immediately  before  them,  the  adverb  might  be  con- 
strued with  "  forward. "  I  bring  the  things  forward  only,  not  forward  and  back- 
ward, or  not  up  and  down.  The  true  order  of  the  words  is,  "  I  bring  forward 
some  things  only.  Plenty  more  might  be  said."  Here  the  arrangement  prevents 
the  possibility  of  mistake. 

"  By  greatness,  I  do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but  the  large- 
ness of  a  whole  view."— Addison.  Here,  "only"  is  so  placed  as  to  qualify  "  mean," 
and  might  raise  the  question,  What  else  does  he  intend  to  do?  In  like  manner, 
if  the  adverb  is  placed  after  "bulk,"  the  question  might  be  asked,  If  it  is  the 
bulk  only  that  you  are  speaking  about,  why  net  speak  also  of  the  color,  or  the 
weight?   The  proper  order  is, "  By  greatness,  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single 


SENTENCES— CLEARNESS.  105 

object  only,  but  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view.' '  In  the  sentence  as  thus  arranged, 
"  only"  carries  the  mind  back  to  the  whole  phrase  "  the  greatness  of  a  single  ob- 
ject," and  thus  brings  out  perfectly  the  contrast  intended  by  the  author,  "  the 
largeness  of  a  whole  view." 

For  a  correct  use  of  the  word,  see  Ezekiel  14 :  16.  "  Though  these  three  men 
[Noah,  Daniel,  and  Job]  were  in  it  [the  land],  as  I  live,  saith  the  Lord  God,  they 
shall  deliver  neither  sons  nor  daughters  ;  they  only  shall  be  delivered,  but  the 
land  shall  be  desolate." 

"  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  [to]  atheism."  —  Shaftesbury . 
Did  the  author  mean  that  theism  is  capable  of  nothing  else,  except  being  opposed 
to  polytheism,  or  to  atheism?  or  did  he  mean  that  polytheism  and  atheism  are 
the  only  things  to  which  it  can  be  opposed  ?  If  the  latter,  the  correct  order  would 
be :  "  Theism  can  be  opposed  only  to  polytheism,  or  [to]  atheism."  That  is,  it  can 
be  opposed  to  these  things  and  to  nothing  else. 

"  In  all  abstract  cases  where  we  merely  speak  of  numbers,  the  verb  is  better  sin- 
gular."—Alford.  The  question  might  be  asked,  what  if  we  write  of  numbers,  as 
well  as  speak  of  them  ?  But  the  author  evidently  intended  the  "  merely  "  to  limit 
"  numbers ; "  and  he  should  have  written, "  In  all  cases  where  we  speak  of  num- 
bers merely,  the  verb  is  better  singular." 

"  The  Romans  understood  liberty  at  least  as  well  as  we."— Swift.  If,  in  reading 
this,  we  emphasize  "  liberty,"  the  meaning  is,  that  whatever  else  we  understand 
better  than  the  Romans  did,  liberty,  at  least,  was  one  thing  which  they  understood 
as  well  as  we  do.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  put  the  emphasis  on  "  we,"  the  mean- 
ing is,  liberty  was  understood  by  them  well,  as  well  at  least  as  by  us,  probably 
better.  This  meaning,  which  appears  to  be  what  the  author  intended,  would 
have  been  expressed  without  ambiguity  by  arranging  the  words  thus :  "  The 
Romans  understood  liberty,  as  well,  at  least,  as  we." 

Blair's  Remark.—  On  this  part  of  the  subject,  Blair  makes  the  fol- 
lowing judicious  remark : 

"  In  regard  to  such  adverbs  as  only,  wholly,  at  least,  the  fact  is 
that  in  common  discourse,  the  tone  and  emphasis  we  use  in  pro- 
nouncing them  generally  serves  to  show  their  reference,  and  to 
make  the  meaning  clear ;  and  hence  we  acquire  a  habit  of  throwing 
them  in  loosely  in  the  course  of  a  period.  But,  in  writing,  where 
a  man  speaks  to  the  eye,  and  not  to  the  ear,  he  ought  to  be  more 
accurate ;  and  so  to  connect  those  adverbs  with  the  words  which 
they  qualify,  as  to  put  his  meaning  out  of  doubt,  upon  the  first  in- 
spection." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  criticise  and  correct  the  following  sentences  in  re- 
gard to  the  position  of  the  adverb.] 

1.  There  are  certain  miseries  in  idleness  which  the  idle  can  only 
conceive. 

2.  The  good  man  not  only  deserves  the  respect,  but  the  love  of 
his  fellow-beings. 


106  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  He  is  considered  generally  insane. 

4.  California  not  only  produces  gold  in  abundance,  but  quick- 
silver also. 

5.  It  was  by  the  English,  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch,  that  the 
New  World  was  principally  colonized. 

6.  If  education  refined  only  the  manners,  we  might  do  without 
it ;  but  it  also  disciplines  the  mind  and  improves  the  heart. 

7.  The  productions  mostly  consist  of  corn  and  cotton. 

8.  It  was  by  hunting  and  fishing  that  the  Indians  chiefly  sub- 
sisted. 

9.  Cook  potatoes  with  their  jackets,  as  I  call  them,  on. 

10.  They  allowed  themselves  to  be  drawn  off  when  only  wearied 
of  their  own  excesses. 

11.  It  was  the  advantage  gained  precisely  by  the  Saxons  which 
ruined  them. 

12.  One  among  royal  houses  alone  did  not  recognize  the  rights 
of  women. 

13.  Port-wine  is  now  only  favored  by  two  classes. 

14.  To  contemplate  abstract  subjects  only  disciplines  the  mind, 
rarely  if  ever  interesting  it. 

15.  If  the  genius  of  the  dramatist  only  can  be  brought  to  recog- 
nize the  great  responsibilities  of  his  calling. 

16.  I  never  expect  to  see  Europe. 

17.  I  always  expect  to  spend  my  money  as  fast  as  I  get  it. 

18.  The  light,  sandy  soil  only  favors  the  fern. 

19.  He  was  elected,  but  only  was  seen  twice  in  the  House. 

20.  I  only  distribute  them  among  the  lower  ranks. 

21.  I  only  spoke  to  him.     I  did  not  speak  to  any  one  else. 

22.  The  French  nearly  lost  five  thousand  men. 

23.  He  merely  accompanied  me  to  the  brook.  I  was  obliged  to 
go  the  rest  of  the  way  by  myself. 

24.  I  did  not  talk  to  him,  but  to  you. 

25.  He  called  to  John  mildly,  pursuing  his  way  calmly  and  slowly 
along  the  stream. 

2.  Position  of  Adverbial  Clauses  and  Adjuncts. 

What  has  been  asserted  of  adverbs,  is  equally  true  of  what  may 
be  called  adverbial  clauses  and  adjuncts.  By  an  adverbial  clause 
or  adjunct  is  meant  a  number  of  words,  which,  taken  together,  limit 
the  meaning  of  some  other  word.     All  such  clauses  or  adjuncts 


SENTENCES— CLEARNESS.  107 

should  be  so  placed  that  they  cannot  easily  be  taken  to  qualify  any 
other  word  than  that  for  which  they  are  intended. 

"  It  contained  a  warrant  for  conducting  me  and  my  retinue  to  Traldragdubb, 
or  Trildrogdrib,  for  it  is  pronounced  both  ways,  as  near  as  I  can  remember,  by  a 
party  of  ten  horse."— Swift.  What  the  author  means  to  say.  is  that  he  and  his 
retinue  are  to  be  conducted  by  a  party  of  ten  horse.  What  he  does  say,  is  that 
this  place  with  the  hard  name  is  pronounced  both  ways  by  a  party  of  ten  horse. 

"  The  following  lines  were  written  by  an  esteemed  friend,  who  has  lain  in  the 
grave  for  many  years,  for  his  own  amusement." — Anonymous.  The  author  means 
that  his  friend  had  written  the  lines  for  his  own  amusement.  What  he  says,  is 
that  his  friend  has  lain  in  the  grave  many  years  for  his  own  amusement ! 

In  the  English  House  of  Commons,  a  speaker  once  said  that  a  certain  witness 
had  been  "  ordered  to  withdraw  from  the  bar  in  consequence  of  being  intoxi- 
cated, by  the  motion  of  an  honorable  member," — as  if  the  witness  was  intoxi- 
cated by  the  motion !  The  speaker  meant,  that,  "  in  consequence  of  being  in- 
toxicated, the  witness,  by  the  motion  of  an  honorable  member,  had  been  ordered 
to  withdraw  from  the  bar  of  the  House." 

"The  beaux  of  that  day  used  the  abominable  art  of  painting  their  faces,  as 
well  as  the  women."— D' Israeli.  That  is,  the  beaux  not  only  painted  their  faces, 
but  painted  the  women  also !  The  author  meant  to  say,  "  The  beaux  of  that  day, 
as  well  as  the  women,  used  the  abominable  art  of  painting  their  faces." 

"  I  remember  when  the  French  band  of  the  '  Guides '  were  in  this  country, 
reading  in  the  '  niustrated  News.'  "—Alford.  The  author  seems  to  say  that  these 
Frenchmen  were  reading  in  the  Illustrated  News.  He  means,  "I  remember 
reading  in  the  Illustrated  News,  when  the  French  band  of  the  '  Guides '  were  in 
this  country." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  criticise  and  amend  the  following  sentences,  in  re- 
gard to  the  position  of  the  adverbial  adjuncts  and  clauses.] 

1.  There  is  something  that  whispers  of  faith,  too,  in  repose. 

2.  He  was  born  in  the  old  New  England  town,  whose  colonial 
history  is  so  tragically  memorable,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1804. 

3.  I  could  see  that  the  floor  had  been  swept  with  half  an  eye. 

4.  The  enemy  attacked  us  before  the  day  had  begun  to  break  at 
three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

5.  He  went  to  town,  driving  a  flock  of  sheep,  on  horseback. 

6.  Wanted,  a  young  woman  to  take  care  of  two  orphan  children, 
of  a  religious  turn  of  mind. 

7.  Dr.  Hall  will  deliver  a  lecture  on  the  importance  of  taking  ex- 
ercise before  breakfast  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

8.  Wanted,  a  room  for  a  single  gentleman,  twelve  feet  long  and 
six  feet  wide. 

9.  Lost,  a  cow  belonging  to  an  old  woman,  with  brass  knobs  on 
her  horns. 


y 


108  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

10.  She  lived  a  life  of  virtue,  and  died  of  the  cholera  morbus, 
caused  by  eating  green  fruit,  in  the  full  hope  of  a  blessed  immor- 
tality, at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  Reader,  go  thou  and  do  like- 
wise. 

11.  The  undersigned  took  up  two  young  mares,  four  or  five  years 
old,  a  dark  iron-gray,  one  had  a  wart  on  the  right  side  of  his  head, 
eight  miles  north  of  Altoona. 

12.  He  merely  asks  leave  to  come  and  play  a  little  solo,  on  the 
bagpipes,  of  his  own  composing. 

13.  A  man  with  one  eye  named  Robert  Welch. 

14.  Lost  by  a  poor  lad  tied  up  in  a  brown  paper  with  a  white 
string  a  German  flute  with  an  overcoat  and  several  other  articles 
of  wearing  apparel. 

15.  Nature  tells  me,  I  am  the  image  of  God,  as  well  as  Scripture. 

16.  I  lived  in  a  small  house  which  for  a  pleasant  back  opening  Sir 
Matthew  Hale  had  a  mind  to ;  but  he  caused  a  stranger,  that  he 
might  not  be  suspected  to  be  the  man,  to  know  of  me  whether  I 
were  willing  to  part  with  it  before  he  would  meddle  with  it. 

17.  The  thirty  years,  from  the  year  1672  to  his  death,  in  which 
he  acted  so  great  a  part,  carry  in  them  many  amazing  steps  of  a 
glorious  and  distinguishing  Providence. 

18.  Though  I  can't  say  I  ever  actually  saw  a  ghost  in  my  life, 
yet  I  am  certain  I  should  know  one  if  I  saw  him,  better  than  that 
comes  to. 

19.  The  transition  is  commonly  made  with  ease  from  these  to  the 
higher  and  more  important  duties  of  life. 

20.  Passengers  are  requested  to  purchase  tickets  before  entering 
the  cars  at  the  company's  office. 

21.  The  motion  of  the  pendulum  is  repeated  in  the  vibration  of 
atoms  of  ether,  not  recognizable  by  the  senses. 

22.  The  author's  object  is  to  represent  for  his  own  pleasure  the 
things  witnessed,  in  as  vivid  and  correct  a  manner  as  possible. 

23.  I  recommend  to  you  to  take  yourself  back,  and  be  talked  to 
presently,  you  fool,  while  there 's  time  to  retreat. 

24.  When  at  last  we  got  into  town,  the  people  came  out  to  their 
doors,  all  aslant  and  with  streaming  hair,  making  a  wonder  of  the 
mail  that  had  come  through  on  such  a  night. 

25.  A  child  was  run  over  by  a  heavy  wagon,  four  years  old,  wear- 
ing a  short  pink  dress,  and  bronze  boots,  whose  parents  are  not  yet 
found. 


SENTENCES— CLEARNESS.  109 

26.  I  would  like  the  congregation  to  be  seated,  as  I  wish  to  say  a 
few  words,  before  I  begin. 

27.  They  laid  the  three  peacefully  to  rest  in  the  little  shaded 
church-yard  beneath  the  trees,  under  whose  shadow  they  had 
chatted  with  those  now  surviving  a  thousand  times. 

28.  He  by  no  means  despaired  of  seeing  her  come  out  of  the 
cloud  which  now  covered  her  with  a  meek  and  grateful  heart. 

29.  Banks  of  sea-weed  were  piled  up  around  these  huts,  kept 
down  from  the  power  of  the  wind  by  large  stones  laid  on  the  top, 
to  exclude  the  cold  and  snow  of  winter. 

30.  I  cannot  think  of  leaving  you  without  distress. 

31.  He  felt  himself  more  unworthy  every  day  of  such  a  privilege 
as  life  seemed  to  him  to  be  passed  in  the  intimate  society  of  such  a 
woman. 

32.  Unlimited  authority  was  given  to  the  female  dominion,  for 
everything  that  might  be  appropriated  to  their  position,  and  con- 
sistent with  their  known  principles  of  domestic  life,  in  the  arrange- 
ments for  the  important  event. 

33.  Among  the  first  arrivals  was  Mr.  Derby,  now  so  loved  by 
every  one,  who  was  to  officiate  on  the  occasion. 

34.  They  present  an  attractive,  consistent,  and  amiable  example 
in  the  community,  of  the  things  which  are  pure,  lovely,  and  of  good 
report. 

35.  There  was  a  little  church  mission  a  few  miles  from  the  fort, 
in  the  country,  maintained  by  the  English  Society. 

>f  3.  Squinting"  Construction. 

In  connection  with  these  examples  it  is  well  to  notice  what  the 
French  call  a  "squinting"  construction.  By  this  is  meant  a  word, 
or  a  grammatical  expression,  thrown  into  the  middle  of  a  sentence, 
in  such  a  place  that  it  looks  both  ways,  so  to  speak;  that  is,  it  can 
be  connected  in  meaning  either  with  what  goes  before,  or  with  what 
follows.     This  is  a  very  common  source  of  ambiguity. 

"  When  I  hear  a  person  use  a  queer  expression,  or  pronounce  a  name  in  read- 
ing differently  from  his  neighbors,  it  always  goes  down,  in  my  estimate  of  him, 
with  a  ruinous  sign  before  it."— Alford.  Here  the  words  "  in  reading"  look  two 
ways.  They  may  be  construed  either  with  those  which  precede,  or  with  those 
which  follow.  We  may  understand  the  author  as  saying  either  "  pronounce  a 
name  in  reading,"  or  "  in  reading  differently  from  his  neighbors."  The  proper 
arrangement  would  be :  "  When  I  hear  a  person  use  a  queer  expression,  or,  in 
reading,  pronounce  a  name  differently  from  his  neighbors,"  etc. 
10 


110  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

"  Though  some  of  the  European  rulers  may  be  females,  when  gpoken  of  alto- 
gether, they  may  be  correctly  classified  under  the  denomination  '  kings.'  "—Atford. 
This  may  be  understood  to  mean  that  "  some  of  the  European  rulers  may  be  fe- 
males when  spoken  of  altogether."  What  the  author  really  meant  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  transposing  the  words  italicized  and  putting  them  immediately  after 
"  they  may."  Thus :  "  Though  some  of  the  European  rulers  may  be  females, 
they  may,  when  spoken  of  altogether,  be  correctly  classified  under  the  denomi- 
nation '  kings.' " 

"  Are  these  designs,  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a  Briton,  in  any  circumstances, 
ought  to  be  ashamed  to  avow?"  The  words  in  italic  squint.  They  may  look 
back  to  "  born,"  or  forward  to  "  ashamed."  This  sentence  may  mean  a  "  man 
who  in  any  circumstances  is  born  a  Briton,"  or  that  he  "ought  not  in  any  cir- 
cumstances to  be  ashamed."  The  words  should  be  arranged  thus :  "Are  these 
designs,  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a  Briton,  ought  in  any  circumstances  to  be 
ashamed  to  avow  ?  " 

The  Arrangement  may  be  Faulty  without  being  Ambiguous. —  In 
many  instances  of  faulty  arrangement,  such  as  those  which  have 
been  quoted,  there  is  perhaps  no  real  ambiguity.  The  meaning 
which  the  construction  suggests  is  so  thoroughly  absurd,  that  we 
see  at  once  that  the  author  must  have  meant  something  else.  The 
effect  of  the  bad  construction,  therefore,  is  not  so  much  to  make  the 
sentence  ambiguous,  as  to  make  it  obscure.  Obscurity,  however,  is 
a  fault  quite  as  much  as  ambiguity. 

General  Rule. — The  writer  should  never  require  of  the 
reader,  in  order  to  an  understanding  of  the  meaning,  any- 
greater  degree  of  attention  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

The  Reason. — Whatever  attention  we  are  obliged  to  give  to  the 
words,  in  order  to  take  in  their  meaning,  is  so  much  deducted  from 
the  force  of  the  sentiments. 

Quintilian's  Rule. — "Care  should  be  taken,"  says  Quin- 
tilian,  "not  that  the  hearer  may  understand,  but  that  he  must 
understand,  whether  he  will  or  not." 

Language  a  Transparent  Medium. — Language  has  been  well  com- 
pared to  air,  glass,  water,  or  other  transparent  medium,  through 
which  material  objects  are  viewed.  "If,"  says  Campbell,  "the 
medium  through  which  we  look  at  any  object  is  perfectly  trans- 
parent, our  whole  attention  is  fixed  on  the  object;  we  are  scarcely 
Mttftblfi  that  there  is  a  medium  which  intervenes,  and  we  can  hardly 
be  said  to  pwoeife  it.  Bat  if  there  is  gnj  flaw  in  the  medium,  if 
we  see  through  it  but  dimly,  if  the  object  is  imperfectly  represented, 


SENTENCES— CLEARNESS.  Ill 

or  if  we  know  it  to  be  misrepresented,  our  attention  is  immediately 
taken  off  the  object  to  the  medium.  We  are  then  anxious  to  dis- 
cover the  cause,  either  of  the  dim  and  confused  representation,  or 
of  the  misrepresentation,  of  things  which  it  exhibits,  that  so  the 
defect  in  vision  may  be  supplied  by  judgment.  The  case  of  lan- 
guage is  precisely  similar.  A  discourse,  then,  excels  in  perspicuity 
when  the  subject  engrosses  the  attention  of  the  hearer,  and  the 
language  is  so  little  minded  by  him,  that  he  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  conscious  it  is  through  this  medium  he  sees  into  the  speaker's 
thoughts." 

Example.  In  the  following  passage  from  Browning,  it  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine from  the  sentence  itself,  whether  it  was  the  "  chief"  or  the  "boy"  who  fell 
dead: 

"  You  're  wounded ! "  —  "  Nay,"  his  soldier-pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said, 
"I'm  killed,  sire,"  and  his  chitf  beside 
•The  smiling  boy  fell  dead. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  point  out  the  squinting  clause  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  and  to  reconstruct  the  sentences  so  as  to  make  them  free  from 
this  fault.] 

1.  The  poor  little  beggar  longed  for  some  fruit,  and  after  search- 
ing from  one  end  of  the  market  to  the  other,  for  a  penny,  at  length, 
bought  an  apple. 

2.  Substances  which  have  been  innocuous,  through  the  winter 
months,  become  fruitful  in  insalutary  influences. 

3.  This  part  of  our  good  fame  in  the  olden  time  was  forfeited  by 
the  negligence  of  the  authorities. 

4.  Yet  we  fancy  that  Franklin,  the  philosopher,  in  small  things  as 
well  as  great,  rejoiced  in  his  heart  when  house-cleaning  day  came. 

5.  The  wild  fellow  in  Petronius,  who  escaped  upon  a  broken  table 
from  the  furies  of  a  shipwreck,  as  he  was  sunning  himself  upon  the 
rocky  shore,  espied  a  man  rolled  upon  his  floating  bed  of  waves. 

6.  He  [Gibbon]  incurred  the  imputation  of  avarice,  while  he  was, 
in  fact,  exceedingly  generous,  simply  by  his  ignorance  of  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  money. 

7.  They  arose,  to  a  degree,  comforted  and  tranquil. 

8.  The  wreck  of  his  vessel  upon  the  sand-bar  remained,  in  all 
those  succeeding  years,  a  monument  of  his  departure  in  the  midst 
of  the  sea. 


112  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

9.  They  came  together  to  good  Dr.  Bern  is,  to  offer  themselves,  as 
they  said,  to  sign  their  shipping-papers  with  the  Lord. 

10.  When  the  morning  came  and  their  breakfast  was  over,  to  their 
surprise,  Mr.  Dalton's  carriage  stood  before  the  door. 

11.  Any  one  whom  he  considered  in  all  things  ^subject  to  his  abso- 
lute command. 

12.  Mr.  Derby  icaught  his  opportunity,  as  Colonel  Brenton  finished 
his  last  appeal,  to  open  to  him  the  whole  provision  of  grace  and 
forgiveness. 

13.  "It  shames  man  not  to  feel  man's  human  fear."  —Lord  Lyt- 
ton's  King  Arthur. 

14.  This  monument  was  erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Smith, 
who  was  shot,  as  a  mark  of  affection  by  his  brother. 

15.  Tell  him,  if  he  is  in  the  parlor,  I  do  not  care  to  see  him. 

16.  Say  to  him,  if  he  is  in  the  wrong,  he  should  retrace  his  steps. 

4.  Use  of  the  Pronouns. 

Ambiguity  and  obscurity  are  often  produced  by  carelessness  in 
the  use  of  the  Pronouns.  "When  a  man  gets  to  his  its"  says  Cob- 
bett,  "  I  tremble  for  him."  The  skill  with  which  a  writer  deals 
with  the  pronouns  and  other  small  connecting  words  is  the  best 
evidence  of  the  extent  to  which  he  has  attained  a  mastery  of  the 
art  of  composition. 

Personal  Pronouns. — When  two  or  more  masculine  nouns  occur  in 
the  same  sentence,  the  use  of  "  he  "  often  becomes  ambiguous.  To 
avoid  this  ambiguity,  some  other  form  must  be  given  to  the  expres- 
sion, or,  instead  of  using  the  pronoun,  we  must  repeat  the  noun. 

"The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father,  for  if  he  should  leave  his  father,  his  father 
would  die."— Gen.  44 :  22.  A  less  skilful  writer  would  have  said,  "  if  he  should 
leave  his  father,  he  would  die,"  leaving  it  uncertain  whether  it  was  the  father  or 
the  son  that  would  die, 

Hallam,  in  his  Literature  of  Modern  Europe,  says,  "  No  one  as  yet  had  exhibited 
the  structure  of  the  human  kidneys,  Vesalius  having  examined  them  only  in 
dogs,"  that  is,  having  examined  human  kidneys  in  dogs !  Read,  "  Vesalius  hav- 
ing examined  the  kidneys  of  dogs  only." 

In  a  memoir  of  John  Leyden,  it  is  said,  *  The  intellectual  qualities  of  the 
youth  were  superior  to  those  of  his  raiment,"  that  is,  superior  to  the  intellectual 
tjiiu/itiiH  of  his  raiment!  The  writer  meant  probably  that  the  qualities  of  the 
youth's  Intellect  were  superior  to  those  of  his  raiment. 

l)<-au  Alfor.l,  in  his  "  I'l.-a  for  the  Queen's  Kn^lish,"  lias  this  sentence:  "Two 
other  words  occur  to  me  which  are  very  commonly  mangled  by  our  clergy.    One 


SENTENCES— CLEARNESS.  113 

of  these  [words,  or  clergy?]  is  'covetous,'  and  its  substantive  ' covetousness.'  I 
hope  some  who  read  these  lines,  will  be  induced  to  leave  off  pronouncing  them 
[lineR,  clergy,  or  words  ?]  ■  covetious'  and '  covetiousness.'  I  can  assure  them  [lines, 
readers,  clergy,  or  words?]  that  when  they  [lines,  readers,  clergy,  or  words?]  do 
thus  call  them  [lines,  readers,  clergy,  or  words?],  one  at  least  of  their  [?]  hearers 
has  his  appreciation  of  their  [?]  teaching  disturbed."  Mr.  Moon  has  shown 
mathematically  that  this  sentence  is  capable  of  ten  thousand  two  hundred  and 
forty  different  meanings ! 

"  Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  that  is  in  others ;  and  think  that 
their  [others,  or  men  ?]  reputation  obscures  them  f  ?  ],  and  their  [  ?  ]  commendable 
qualities  stand  in  their  [?]  light;  and  therefore  they  [?],  do  what  they  [?]  can  to 
cast  a  cloud  over  them  [  ?  ],  that  the  bright  shining  of  their  [  ?  ]  virtues  may  not 
obscure  them  [?  y'—Tillotson.  Here  are  no  less  than  four  words,  "men." 
"  others,"  "  qualities,"  and  "  virtues,"  to  any  one  of  which  the  last  "  them  "  may 
refer.  The  other  pronouns  may  refer  severally  to  three  or  to  two  words,  so  that 
the  sentence  becomes  a  perfect  jumble.  By  changing  "  others  "  to  the  singular, 
the  pronouns  will  at  once  adjust  themselves  so  that  the  meaning  of  the  author 
will  be  perfectly  clear.  "Men  look  with  evil  eye  upon  the  good  that  is  in 
another ;  and  think  that  his  reputation  obscures  them,  his  commendable  qualities 
stand  in  their  light ;  and  therefore  they  do  what  they  can  to  cast  a  cloud  over 
him,  that  the  bright  shining  of  his  virtues  may  not  obscure  them." 

How  to  Avoid  Embarrassment.—  A  writer  who  becomes  thus  em- 
barrassed in  the  use  of  the  pronouns,  in  consequence  of  having  to 
refer  back  to  two  different  objects,  or  classes  of  objects,  will  almost 
always  be  able  to  extricate  himself  from  the  difficulty  by  thus 
changing  the  construction  so  as  to  make  one  object  or  class  of 
objects  singular  and  the  other  plural.* 

*  Burton  gives  a  capital  story  of  Billy  Williams,  a  comic  actor,  which  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  point  now  under  consideration.  Williams  is  represented  as  tell- 
ing his  experience  in  riding  a  horse  belonging  to  Hamblin,  the  manager. 

"  So  down  I  goes  to  the  stable  with  Tom  Flynn,  and  told  the  man  to'put  the  saddle 
on  him." 

"On  Tom  Flynn?" 

"  No,  on  the  horse.    So,  after  talking  with  Tom  Flynn  awhile,  I  mounted  him." 

"What!  mounted  Tom  Flynn?" 

"  No !  the  horse ;  and  then  I  shook  hands  with  him  and  rode  off." 

"Shook  hands  with  the  horse,  Billy?" 

"No,  with  Tom  Flynn  ;  and  then  I  rode  off  up  the  Bowery,  and  who  should  I  meet 
in  front  of  the  Bowery  Theatre  but  Tom  Hamblin ;  so  I  got  off  and  told  the  boy  to 
hold  him  by  the  head." 

"  What !  hold  Hamblin  by  the  head  ?  " 

"  No,  the  horse ;  and  then  we  went  and  had  a  drink  together." 

"What!  you  and  the  horse?" 

"  No,  me  and  Hamblin ;  and  after  that  I  mounted  him  again,  and  went  out  of 
town." 

"What!  mounted  Hamblin  again?" 

"  No,  the  horse ;  and  when  I  got  to  Burnham.who  should  be  there  but  Tom  Flynn, 
—  he  'd  taken  another  horse  and  rode  out  ahead  of  me;  so  I  told  the  hostler  to  tie 
him  up." 

"Tie  Tom  Flynn  up?" 

"  No,  the  horse ;  and  we  had  a  drink  there." 

"  What !  you  and  the  horse  ?  " 

"  No,  me  and  Tom  Flynn  ! " 

Finding  his  auditors  by  this  time  in  a  horse  laugh,  Billy  wound  up  with  — 

"Now,  look  here,— every  time  I  say  horse,  you  say  Hamblin,  and  every  time  I  say 
Hamblin,  you  say  horse.    I  '11  be  hanged  if  I  tell  you  any  more  about  it." 

10*  H 


114  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Relative  Pronouns.—  The  Relative  Pronouns  are  used  inaccurately 
oftener  even  than  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

"  Many,"  says  Swift,  "  act  so  directly  contrary  to  this  method,  that,  from  a 
habit  of  saving  time  and  paper,  which  they  acquired  at  the  University,  they  write 
in  so  diminutive  a  manner,  that  they  can  hardly  read  what  they  have  written." 
Swift  does  not  mean  that  they  had  acquired  time  and  paper  at  the  University, 
but  that  they  had  acquired  this  habit  there.  The  sentence  then  should  have 
been  :  "  From  a  habit  which  they  had  acquired  at  the  University,  of  saving  time 
and  paper,  they  write  in  so  diminutive  a  manner." 

"  Thus  I  have  fairly  given  you  my  own  opinion,  as  well  as  that  of  a  great 
majority  of  both  houses  here,  relating  to  this  weighty  affair ;  upon  which  I  am 
confident  you  may  securely  reckon."—  Swift.  Here,  according  to  the  construc- 
tion, the  person  addressed  may  securely  reckon  upon  this  weighty  affair.  But 
as  that  would  make  nonsense,  we  are  led  to  conjecture  that  the  author  meant  his 
friend  to  reckon  upon  a  majority  of  both  houses.  If  so,  the  sentence  should  read : 
"  Thus  I  have  fairly  given  you  my  own  opinion  relating  to  this  weighty  affair, 
as  well  as  that  of  a  great  majority  of  both  houses  here;  upon  which  I  am  con- 
fident you  may  securely  reckon." 

"  We  nowhere  meet  with  a  more  glorious  and  pleasing  show  in  nature,  than 
what  appears  in  the  heavens  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  which  [sun,  ris- 
ing and  setting,  or  show?]  is  wholly  made  up  of  those  different  stains  of  light, 
that  show  themselves  in  clouds  of  a  different  situation." — Addison.  This  sen- 
tence is  not  perhaps  absolutely  ambiguous^  for  after  some  study  we  find  that  the 
"  which  "  must  relate  to  "  show."  But  the  meaning  is  at  least  made  obscure  by 
the  wide  separation  of  the  relative  from  its  antecedent,  and  by  the  introduction 
of  other  nouns  between  the  relative  and  its  antecedent.  This  obscurity  might 
have  been  avoided,  and  the  meaning  rendered  entirely  perspicuous  by  arranging 
the  words  thus :  "  We  nowhere  meet  with  a  more  glorious  and  pleasing  show  in 
nature,  than  that  which  appears  in  the  heavens  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
sun,  and  which  is  wholly  made  up  of  those  different  stains  of  light,"  etc.  Here 
the  second  "  which  "  is  connected  by  the  conjunction  with  the  first  "  which,"  and 
both  refer  back  directly  to  "show,"  and  cannot  refer  to  anything  else. 

"  It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by  heaping 
up  treasures  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the  good  providence  of  our 
Heavenly  Father."—  Sherlock.  That  is.  nothing  can  protect  us  against  treasures! 
The  author  meant :  "  It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to  arm  our- 
selves against  the  accidents  of  life,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the 
good  providence  of  our  Heavenly  Father." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

(The  student  is  expected  to  criticise  and  amend  the  following  sentences,  in  ref- 
erence to  the  improper  use  of  the  pronouns.] 

1.  Holland,  a  country  wholly  rescued  from  the  sea,  which  pos- 
sesses very  little  natural  advantages,  lias  boon  converted  into  one 
vast  garden  by  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants, 

2.  Mr.  French  needs  a  surgeon,  who  has  broken  his  arm. 
8.  The  figs  were  in  small  wooden  boxes,  which  we  ate. 


SENTENCES— CLEARNESS.  115 

4.  He  needs  no  spectacles,  that  cannot  see ;  nor  boots,  that  cannot 
walk. 

5.  He  must  endure  the  follies  of  others,  who  will  have  their  kind- 
ness. 

6.  Found,  a  white-handled  knife,  by  a  child,  that  has  a  broken 
back. 

7.  To  rent,  a  house  containing  ten  rooms,  located  in  a  pleasant 
village,  which  has  a  fine  bay-window  in  front. 

8.  John  at  last  found  the  key,  locked  the  door,  and  went  off,  put- 
ting it  in  his  pocket. 

9.  The  farmer  went  to  his  neighbor  and  told  him  that  his  cattle 
^T-were  in  his  fields. 

~\~     10.  Robert  promised  his  father  that  he  would  pay  his  debts. 

11.  They  were  persons  of  very  moderate  intellects  even  before 
they  were  impaired  by  their  passions. 

12.  I  shall  be  happy  if  I  can  contribute  to  your  and  my  country's 
glory. 

13.  Mrs.  Jones  said  to  her  daughter  that  perhaps  she  might  go  to 
the  city  for  the  zephyr  she  needed  to  finish  the  cushion  for  her  sis- 

"'    ter's  Christmas  present.  , 

14.  There  is  a  lane  <at  the  end  of  the  town,  where  the  young  vicar 
Y~  from  his  study  can  see  the  young  ladies  passing  on  their  way  to  the 

cottage  of  their  pensioner,  which  is  muddy  and  affords  an  excuse 
for  joining  them  as  they  come  back. 

15.  He  is  like  a  beast  of  prey,  that  is  void  of  compassion. 

16.  His  son,  a  youth  of  thirteen,  was  permitted  to  stay  in  prison 
with  his  father,  who  beholding  his  only  surviving  parent  loaded  with 
irons  was  overwhelmed  with  grief. 

17.  The  captain  of  the  ship  swam  ashore,  and  so  did  the  cook. 
She  was  insured  for  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  and  was  heavily  loaded 
with  iron. 

18.  During  the  procession,  a  child  was  run  over,  wearing  a  short 
red  dress,  which  never  spoke  afterwards. 

19.  The  mad  dog  bit  a  horse  on  the  leg,  which  has  since  died. 

,      20.  When  the  travellers  complained  of  the  ferocity  of  his  dogs,  he 
said  they  were  ill-bred  curs. 

21.  Mary  asked  her  mother  if  she  might  go  with  her,  as  she  was 
-r  sure  she  was  going  to  buy  something  for  her. 

22.  Life  with  him  has  ended  in  a  sad  mistake  which  began  with 
such  bright  prospects. 


IIS  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

23.  Did  you  take  that  book  to  the  library,  which  I  loaned  you? 

24.  The  day  has  come  of  great  rejoicing  to  many  glad  hearts  which 
we  have  looked  for  so  long. 

25.  The  body  was  dragged  ashore,  and  she  identified  the  remains, 
which  were  much  decomposed,  by  the  clothing. 

y{      26.  Mr.  Greeley  denied  that  he  had  e*er  used  profane  language  in  an 
interview  which  a  certain  newspaper  reporter  had  put  into  his  mouth. 

27.  When  Abraham  sat  at  his  tent-door,  according  to  his  custom, 
waiting  to  entertain  strangers,  lie  espied  an  old  man  stooping  and 
leaning  on  his  staff,  weary  with  age  and  travel,  coming  toward  him, 
who  was  a  hundred  years  of  age. 

28.  There  is  a  touching  tenderness  in  a  mother's  tears,  when  they 
fall  upon  the  face  of  her  dying  babe,  which  no  eye  can  behold  with- 
out emotion. 

29.  That  is  a  better  statement  of  the  case  than  yours. 

30.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  find  no  fault  with  the  super- 
intendent in  the  hearing  of  the  class,  as  this  would  weaken  his  in- 

A   fluence. 

31.  In  memory  of  the  Rev.  Gilbert  Tennent,  the  first  pastor  of 
this  church,  whose  evangelical  labors  were  abundantly  blessed  in 

y    the  ingathering  of  souls. 

32.  Every  passenger  is  obliged  to  show  their  ticket  before  enter- 
ing the  car. 

v    33.  Gloried  in  the  perfect  independence  of  his  control. 

34.  Dr.  Bemis  was  the  rector  of  the  one  Episcopal  church  in  that 
'   town,  to  which  this  family  had  always  belonged. 

35.  I  don't  think  you  can  do  good  to  anybody,  if  you  set  out  with 
telling  them  how  worthless  and  bad  they  are. 

36.  With  her  beloved  daughter  she  kept  up  the  most  intimate  fel- 
lowship of  feeling  and  conversation,  though  she  tried  to  hide  from 
her  all  knowledge  of  her  father's  intense  cruelty  to  her. 

37.  A  refrigerator-car  is  running  on  the  New  Jersey  railroad  for 
bringing  fresh  meat  from  Chicago. 

38.  Mr.  Smith  uttered  no  sentiment  that  might  not  have  been 
uttered  on  the  Sabbath,  with  strict  propriety,  or  even  in  a  place  of 
worship. 

39.  Intemperance  is  the  great  moral  evil  at  which  it  is  aimed,  by 
the  concession  of  all  mankind. 

40.  Mary  asked  her  sister  if  she  would  bring  her  work-basket 
along,  as  she  wished  to  make  something  for  her  mother. 


X 


SENTENCES— EMPHASIS.  117 

41.  Mr.  Jones  has  just  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Smith,  saying     «f— 
that  he  is  expected  to  deliver  the  next  annual  address. 

Summary  of  Rule  1.  —  The  examples  which  have  now  been  cited 
and  commented  on  are  sufficient  to  explain  and  enforce  the  first  Rule 
for  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  namely,  that  the  words  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  meaning  cannot  be  mistaken. 

Three  Things  to  he  Observed. —  In  carrying  out  this  Rule,  we  must, 
in  particular,  see  — 

1.  That  every  adverb  and  adverbial  clause  is  made  to  adhere 
closely  to  the  word  which  it  is  intended  to  qualify ; 

2.  That  where  a  circumstance  is  thrown  in,  it  shall  not  hang 
loosely  in  the  midst  of  a  period,  but  be  so  placed  as  by  its  position 
to  show  clearly  to  which  member  of  the  sentence  it  belongs ;  and 

3.  That  every  pronoun  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  suggest  instantly 
to  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  noun  referred  to. 

/  RULE  II.— EMPHASIS. 

The  Words  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  conspicuous 
position  to  the  two  Main  Parts  of  the  Sentence,  namely,  the 
Principal  Subject  and  the  Principal  Predicate. 

Two  Things  of  Prime  Importance. — It  is  of  prime  im- 
portance to  the  reader  or  the  hearer  to  know  clearly  and 
without  effort,  first,  what  the  principal  subject  of  discourse 
in  the  sentence  is,  and  secondly,  what  is  the  principal  thing 
intended  to  be  said  of  that  subject.  All  the  other  parts  of 
the  sentence  are  subsidiary  to  these  two,  and  should  be  so 
arranged  that  these  should  strike  at  once  both  the  eye  and 

the  ear. 

1.  The  Principal  Subject. 

The  Principal  Subject  is  that  about  which  mainly  the  writer  in- 
tends to  say  something.  The  Principal  Subject,  as  the  term  is  here 
used,  is  not  necessarily  the  Grammatical  Subject. 

"  Nature,  with  most  beneficent  intention,  conciliates  and  forms  the  mind  of 
man  to  his  condition."  The  context  to  this  sentence  shows  that  the  author 
wished  to  say  something,  not  about  Nature,  but  about  the  mind  of  man.  The 
"mind  of  man,"  therefore,  is  really  the  principal  subject  of  discourse,  though 
grammatically  it  is  the  object  of  the  verbs  u  conciliates  "  and  "  forms/'    4  differ- 


118  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

ent  construction  of  the  sentence  will  show  this.    "  The  mind  of  man  is,  by 
Nature's  beneficent  intention,  conciliated  and  formed  to  his  condition." 

"  The  praise  of  judgment  Virgil  has  justly  contested  with  him  [Homer],  but  his 
invention  remains  unrivalled."— Pope.  Here  the  two  qualities  about  which  Pope 
wishes  to  make  an  assertion  are  judgment  and  invention.  These  then  are  the  real 
subjects,  though  "judgment,"  in  the  first  member  of  the  sentence,  is  grammati- 
cally in  the  objective  case. 

Ordinarily,  however,  the  grammatical  subject  and  the  principal 
subject  are  the  same. 

Examples  are  found  in  the  following  sentences: 

"  Learning  taketh  away  the  wildness,  barbarism,  and  fierceness  of  men's 
minds." 

"  The  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  taken  in  their  full  extent,  are  not  so  gross  as 
those  of  sense,  nor  so  refined  as  those  of  the  understanding." 

'Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  delightful  of  all  our  senses." 

Rule. —  The  Principal  Subject,  whether  grammatically  in 
the  nominative  or  in  the  objective  case,  should  have  a  con- 
spicuous position  in  the  sentence,  and  especially  should  stand 
clear  and  disentangled  from  other  words  that  might  clog  it. 

Most  commonly  and  naturally  the  place  for  this  subject  is  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  three  sentences  last  quoted. 
But  there  may  be  cases  in  which  the  sense  is  rendered  more 
striking  by  putting  the  subject  at  the  end. 

Example  of  Inversion.—"  On  whatever  side  we  contemplate  Homer, 
what  principally  strikes  us  is  his  wonderful  invention." — Pope.  The 
genius  of  our  language  does  not  greatly  facilitate  this  kind  of  in- 
version. Still  it  may  be  practised  occasionally,  and  sometimes  with 
striking  effect,  as  in  the  example  just  quoted. 

Inversion  Produced  by  There  and  It.— The  word  "there,"  used  as 
a  mere  expletive,  is  one  of  the  contrivances  we  have  for  producing 
this  inversion.  "There  was  a  man  sent  of  God,  whose  name  was 
John."  "It"  is  used  indefinitely  for  a  similar  purpose.  "It  was 
Brutus  that  gave  the  fatal  blow." 

An  Example.—"  The  state  was  made,  under  pretence  of  serving  it,  in  reality 
the  prize  of  their  contention,  to  each  of  these  opposite  parties,  who  professed  in 
specious  terms,  the  one  a  preference  for  moderate  aristocracy,  the  other  a  desire 
of  admitting  the  people  at  large  to  an  equality  of  civil  privileges."  Here,  the 
author  moans  to  make  an  assertion  about  the  conduct  of  the  "opposite  parties." 
Yet  those  words,  constituting  the  real  subject,  arc  so  placed  near  the  centre  of 
tin  lentenee,  and  ao  entangled  and  mixed  up  with  other  words,  that  the  mean- 


SENTENCES— EMPHASIS.  119 

ing  is  obscured.  The  sentence,  therefore,  should  be  remodelled,  so  as  to  give  the 
subject  a  conspicuous  position.  This  is  done  by  Whately,  as  follows :  •'  The  two 
opposite  parties,  who  professed  in  specious  terms,  the  one  a  preference  for  moder- 
ate aristocracy,  the  other  a  desire  of  admitting  the  people  at  large  to  an  equality 
of  civil  privileges,  made  the  state,  which  they  pretended  to  serve,  in  reality  the 
prize  of  their  contention."  Here  the  true  subject  is  at  once  brought  before  the 
mind  of  the  reader,  and  the  main  assertion  becomes  clear  and  distinct,  notwith- 
standing the  numerous  subsidiary  ideas  that  are  connected  with  it.  The  sen- 
tence, even  in  its  amended  form,  is  open  to  criticism,  the  words  "  in  reality," 
towards  the  close,  being  capable  of  a  squinting  construction. 

"  It  is  not  without  a  degree  of  patient  attention,  greater  than  the  generality 
are  willing  to  bestow,  though  not  greater  than  the  object  deserves,  that  the  habit 
can  be  acquired  of  examining  and  judging  of  our  own  conduct  with  the  same 
accuracy  and  impartiality  as  that  of  another."  Here  again  the  meaning  is  ob- 
scured by  the  entanglement  into  which  the  principal  subject  is  placed.  By 
recasting  the  sentence,  so  as  to  place  this  subject  at  the  beginning,  the  whole 
meaning  is  cleared  up.  "  The  habit  of  examining  and  judging  of  our  own  con- 
duct with  the  same  impartiality  as  that  of  another,  cannot  be  acquired  without 
a  degree  of  patient  attention,  not  greater  indeed  than  the  object  deserves,  but 
greater  than  the  generality  are  willing  to  bestow." 

Disposal  of  Subsidiary  Matter.— In  order  to  give  the  principal 
subject  a  conspicuous  position,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  place 
it  either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  Some- 
times the  subsidiary  matter,  or  a  portion  of  it,  may  be  disposed  of 
first,  and  then  the  subject  come  in  with  good  effect. 

The  Participial  Construction.—  This  is  especially  the  case  in  what 
is  called  the  Participial  Construction. 

The  effect  of  the  participial  construction  is  to  keep  the  mind  in  suspense.  We 
know  that  the  subject  has  not  yet  been  announced,  and  therefore  are  just  as  ready 
for  it  when  it  does  come,  as  if  it  had  been  given  at  once.  The  advantage  in  this 
construction  is  that  a  multiplicity  of  cumbersome  but  necessary  details  may  be 
disposed  of,  leaving  us  thus  much  freer  to  proceed  from  the  main  subject  to  the 
main  predicate. 

Example.— "Accustomed  to  a  land  at  home  where  every  height,  seen  dimly  in 
the  distance,  might  prove  a  cathedral  tower,  a  church  spire,  a  pilgrim's  oratory, 
or  at  least  a  wayside  cross,  these  religious  explorers  must  often  have  strained  their 
sight  in  order  to  recognize  some  object  of  a  similar  character." 

Qualifying  Clauses  and  Adjuncts.—  Clauses  and  adjuncts  which  mani- 
festly qualify  the  main  subject  may  in  like  manner  sometimes  come 
in  before  it,  without  affecting  its  prominence. 

"  In  the  vacant  space  between  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia,  the  Arabian 
Peninsula  may  be  conceived  as  a  triangle  of  spacious  but  irregular  dimensions." 
Here  the  words  "  In  the  vacant  space  between  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Ethio- 
pia," are  an  adjunct  of  "  the  Arabian  Peninsula."  They  tell  where  that  Peninsula 
is,  and  suggest  thereby  the  reason  why  it  may  be  conceived  as  being  a  triangle. 


120  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  The  Principal  Predicate. 

The  remarks  which  have  been  made  in  regard  to  the  principal 
subject  of  the  sentence  will  apply  with  little  change  to  the  prin- 
cipal predicate.  The  natural  and  common  place  for  the  predicate 
is  at  or  near  the  end  of  a  sentence,  as  that  for  the  subject  is  at 
or  near  the  beginning.  But  circumstances  may  make  an  entirely 
different  arrangement  preferable.  The  assertion  that  "peacemakers 
are  blessed,"  is  rendered  more  emphatic  by  transposing  the  sen- 
'tence,  and  giving  the  predicate  first;  as,  "Blessed  are  the  peace- 
makers." How  much  another  passage  of  Scripture  would  be 
enfeebled,  were  we  to  say,  "Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great," 
instead  of  saying,  M  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians." 

Place  for  the  Principal  Predicate. —  No  definite  rule  can 
be  given,  prescribing  when  the  predicate  should  be  placed 
at  the  beginning,  when  it  should  be  placed  at  the  end,  or 
when  elsewhere.  It  requires,  in  each  case,  the  exercise  of 
taste  and  judgment,  the  writer  ever  bearing  in  mind  which 
words  constitute  the  leading  subject  and  predicate,  and  so 
arranging  the  subordinate  matter  as  to  make  these  words 
prominent. 

Connection  with  Elocution.  —  The  words  constituting  the  principal 
predicate  are  the  ones  which  the  elocutionist  selects  for  his  empha- 
sis. Careless  writers  sometimes  content  themselves  with  marking 
these  emphatic  words  by  italics.  But  this  is  a  weak  device.  The 
sentence  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  so  arranged,  that  the  words  which 
the  sense  requires  to  be  emphatic  shall  be  just  those  which  the  voice 
of  a  good  reader  will  most  naturally  and  easily  select  for  emphasis. 

Absence  of  Italics  no  Proof  of  Good  Construction.  —  Some  writers, 
having  been  taught  that  the  frequent  use  of  italics  is  a  fault,  fancy 
that  they  avoid  the  fault  by  merely  omitting  to  use  italics,  instead 
of  so  constructing  their  sentences  that  italics  will  not  be  needed. 
This,  as  Whately  justly  observes,  is  like  attempting  to  remedy  the 
intricacies  of  a  road  by  removing  the  guide-posts !  The  proper 
remedy  is  to  straighten  the  road.  In  the  same  way,  writers  who 
introduce  long  and  perplexing  parentheses  try  to  avoid  censure  by 
using  commas  instead  of  the  usual  marks  of  parenthesis,  as  if  it 
my  help  to  a  lame  man  to  take  away  his  crutches. 


SENTENCES— EMPHASIS.  121 

Examples.—'1  He  that  tells  a  lie  is  not  sensible  how  great  a  task  he  under- 
takes; for  he  must  be  forced  to  invent  twenty  more,  to  maintain  one."  Here,  in 
the  latter  branch  of  the  sentence,  the  principal  assertion  clearly  is  the  necessity 
of  inventing  twenty  more,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  read  the  passage  so  as  to 
make  this  the  prominent  idea.  Arrange  the  words  thus :  "  For,  to  maintain  one 
lie.  he  must  invent  twenty  more,"  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  read  the  passage  with- 
out making  these  words  emphatic. 

"  That  our  elder  writers,  to  Jeremy  Taylor  inclusive,  quoted  to  excess,  it  would 
be  the  blindness  of  partiality  to  deny."  Here  the  main  assertion,  in  regard  to 
the  elder  writers,  is  their  habit  of  excessive  quotation.  But  it  would  be  difficult 
to  read  it  so  as  clearly  to  bring  out  this  meaning.  Arrange  it  thus :  "  It  would 
be  the  blindness  of  partiality  to  deny,  that  our  elder  writers,  to  Jeremy  Taylor 
inclusive,  quoted  to  excess."  Now  the  principal  predicate  is  so  placed  that  it 
would  be  difficult  for  a  reader  not  to  make  it  emphatic. 

"  Every  attempt  to  dispense  with  axioms  has  proved  unsuccessful ;  somewhere 
or  other  in  the  process,  assumed  theorems  have  been  found."  In  the  latter 
branch  of  the  sentence,  the  most  important  word  is  "  assumed."  This  is  clearly 
the  emphatic  word,  and  the  emphasis  which  ought  to  be  placed  on  it  can  be 
given  more  easily,  if  this  word  is  put  either  at  the  beginning,  or  at  the  end,  of 
the  clause,  thus :  "Assumed  theorems  have  been  found  somewhere  or  other  in 
the  process,"  or,  "  Somewhere  or  other  in  the  process  there  have  been  found 
theorems  which  are  assumed." 

The  Principal  Words  not  to  be  Entangled.  —  On  this  subject,  Blair 
makes  the  following  remarks :  "  In  whatever  part  of  the  sentence 
we  dispose  of  the  capital  words,  it  is  always  a  point  of  great  mo- 
ment, that  these  capital  words  shall  stand  clear  and  disentangled 
from  any  other  words  that  would  clog  them.  Thus,  when  there 
are  any  circumstances  of  time,  place,  or  other  limitations,  which  the 
principal  object  of  the  sentence  requires  to  have  connected  with  it, 
we  must  take  especial  care  to  dispose  of  them,  so  as  not  to  cloud 
that  principal  object,  nor  to  bring  it  under  a  load  of  circumstances." 

Example  from  Shaftesbury,—  Comparing  modern  poets  with  the  ancient, 
Shaftesbury  says :  "If,  while  they  profess  only  to  please,  they  secretly  advise, 
and  give  instruction,  they  may  now,  perhaps,  as  well  as  formerly,  be  esteemed, 
with  justice,  the  best  and  most  honorable  among  authors."  This  sentence  con- 
tains a  great  many  circumstances  and  adverbs,  necessary  to  qualify  the  mean- 
ing; only,  secretly,  as  well,  perhaps,  now,  with  justice,  formerly ;  yet  these  are  placed 
with  so  much  art,  as  neither  to  embarrass  nor  weaken  the  sentence ;  while  that 
which  is  the  capital  object  in  it,  namely,  "  Poets  being  justly  esteemed  the  best 
and  most  honorable  among  authors."  comes  out  in  the  conclusion  clear  and  de- 
tached, and  possesses  its  proper  place.  See  what  would  have  been  the  effect  of 
a  different  arrangement.  "  If,  whilst  they  profess  to  please  only,  they  advise 
and  give  instruction  secretly,  they  may  be  esteemed  the  best  and  most  honorable 
among  authors,  with  justice,  perhaps,  now  as  well  as  formerly." 

Summary  of  Rules  I.  and  II. —  The  two  rules  or  principles  which 
thus  far  have  been  discussed  should  govern  us  in  the  construction 
11 


122  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

of  every  sentence.  As  the  first  of  these  rules  has  for  its  object  to 
secure  Perspicuity,  so  the  second  has  for  its  object  to  secure  the 
proper  Emphasis.  The  former  makes  the  meaning  clear,  the  latter 
makes  it  forcible.  The  two  qualities  here  described  lie  at  the  foun- 
dation of  all  good  writing.  The  very  first  thing  which  a  writer  must 
do  is  so  to  arrange  his  words  as,  first  to  make  his  meaning  plain, 
and  secondly  to  give  his  meaning  all  the  force  of  which  it  is  capable. 
This  last  point  is  secured  in  any  given  sentence  by  attending  chiefly 
to  the  position  of  the  principal  subject  and  of  the  principal  predi- 
cate, and  by  so  placing  these  important  words  that  in  reading  we 
shall  naturally  and  easily  make  them  emphatic. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  following  sentences  are  to  be  reconstructed,  so  as  to  give  a  more  conspicu- 
ous position  either  to  the  principal  subject,  or  to  the  principal  predicate.] 

1.  We  put  out  the  lights,  and  hasten  to  our  own  more  secluded 
fireside,  glad  that  the  world  is  at  least  shut  out  from  here. 

2.  No  matter  in  what  season  we  view  nature,  we  are  always 
struck  with  her  unity  of  design. 

3.  When  Carrini  discovered  that  the  earth  travels  in  a  much 
wider  orbit  than  Tycho  Brahe  had  supposed,  the  new  theory  had 
become  so  firmly  established,  that  while  it  was  proved  that  the  stars 
were  many  hundreds  of  millions  of  miles  farther  from  us,  astrono- 
mers still  held  to  the  new  order  of  things. 

4.  When  his  genius  had  once  warmed  itself  in  this  way,  it  would 
seem  that  it  had  attained  the  healthiness  natural  to  its  best  condi- 
tions, and  could  have  gone  on  forever,  increasing,  both  in  enjoy- 
ment and  in  power, (h.ad  external  circumstances  been  favorable. 

5.  These,  we  may  observe,  commonly  content  themselves  with 
words  which  have  no  distinct  ideas  to  them,  though  in  other  mat- 
ters, that  they  come  with  an  unbiassed  indifferency  to,  they  want 
not  abilities  to  talk  and  hear  reason,  where  they  have  no  secret 
inclination  that  hinders  them  from  being  intractable  to  it. 

G.  To  subject  passengers  arriving  from  foreign  ports  to  unneces- 
sary inconvenience  (is  vety  undesirable,  while  it  is  very  necessary  to 
take  proper  measures  to  prevent  smuggling. 

7.  His  is  a  mind  that/in  discerning  and  reflecting  whatever  odd 
or  amusing  things  occur  in  the  Ufe  around  him,  occupies  itself  pre- 
eminently. 


SENTENCES— UNITY.  123 

8.  Surely  no  effort  can  be  made  which  will  not  be  fully  compen- 
sated by  (the  possession  of  a  power,  which  will  transform  the 
dreamer  into  a  benefactor. 

9.  Nevertheless,  that  the  empire  has  provinces  which  blend  some- 
thing of  foreign  genius  with  their  national  character,  pn  her  every 
frontier)  is^of  the  greatness  of  France  (one  of  the  elements. 

10.  As  a  method  for  putting  children  to  sleep,  claiming  that  it  is 
far  preferable  to  the  remedies  ordinarily  employed,  especially  those 
which  contain  opium  —  a  substance  whose  use  for  this  purpose  can 
scarcely  be  too  strongly  reprehended  —  certain  French  physicians 
recommend  the  use  of  bromide  of  potassium. 

11.  In  addition,  on  a  slip  of  paper  (and,  by  means  of  an  auto- 
graph apparatus,  any  number  of  copies  of  this  list  can  be  produced 
with  great  rapidity)  the  instrument  records  the  name  of  each  mem- 
ber and  how  he  voted. 

12.  Two  men  were  killed  last  evening  on  the  Camden  and  Amboy 
Railroad,  near  the  Fish-House  Station,  who  were  walking  on  the 
track,  and  were  stepping  off  to  get  out  of  the  way  of  one  train 
while  another  was  coming  up  in  another  direction  and  struck  them. 

13.  The  Paterson  people  think  that  it  is  the  Associated  Press  tele- 
grams from  that  city  that  it  has  no  police  force  that  is  bringing  them 
so  many  burglars  and  robbers  from  the  large  cities.  x 

RULE  HI. -UNITY. 

A  Sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  maintain  Unity  of 
Thought. 

Numerous  Details. —  This  Unity  is  not  incompatible  with 
including  in  the  sentence  a  great  number  and  variety  of  par- 
ticulars. A  sentence  may  contain  a  dozen  different  thoughts 
or  ideas,  and  yet  these  may  all  be  so  subordinated  to  the 
one  governing  idea,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  sentence, 
that  the  impression  on  the  mind  is  that  of  one  undivided 
whole. 

Illustration  from  House-building.  —  If  we  see,  lying  loosely  in  a 
field,  heaps  of  sand,  brick,  and  lime,  piles  of  beams,  boards,  stones, 
and  iron,  all  scattered  about  miscellaneously  here  and  there,  we 
have  a  picture  of  many  of  the  sentences,  so  called,  that  we  find  in 


124  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

authors.  When  again  those  scattered  materials  have  been  brought 
into  harmonious  and  orderly  arrangement,  under  the  hand  of  the 
Architect  and  builder, —  when  they  stand  before  us,  not  a  confused 
medley  of  rubbish,  but  a  compacted  and  commodious  house  for  the 
dwelling  of  man,  in  which  every  particle  of  sand  and  lime,  every 
brick  and  stone,  every  piece  of  wood  and  iron  has  its  place,  and 
serves  one  general  design, —  we  have  a  picture  of  the  perfect  Period, 
as  it  comes  from  the  hand  of  the  master-builder. 

Danger  in  Long  Periods. —  It  requires  special  skill  on  the  part  of 
a  writer  to  complete  one  of  these  complex  sentences,  without  some 
sacrifice  of  unity.  It  is  also  a  hazardous  experiment  upon  the 
patience  of  the  reader,  to  expect  him  to  follow  out  such  a  sentence 
to  its  completion,  without  some  flagging  of  the  attention.  A  writer 
who  deals  much  in  these  long,  complex  sentences,  is  apt  to  become 
heavy,  however  faultless  may  be  his  periods.  Often  such  sentences 
may  be  resolved  into  two  or  three  independent  sentences,  greatly  to 
the  relief  of  the  reader. 

u  The  ladders  were  now  applied,  and  mounted  by  several  men,  which  the 
monkey  observing,  and  finding  himself  almost  encompassed,  and  not  being  able 
to  make  speed  enough  with  his  three  legs,  let  me  drop  on  a  ridge  tile,  and  made 
his  escape."—  Swift.  Change  into  two  sentences,  thus :  "  The  ladders  were  now 
applied,  and  [they  werel  mounted  by  several  men.  The  monkey,  observing  this, 
and  finding  himself  almost  encompassed,  and  not  being  able  to  make  speed 
enough  with  his  three  legs,  let  me  drop  on  a  ridge  tile,  and  made  his  escape." 

Macaulay's  Periods. —  No  one  ever  understood  the  management  of 
sentences  better  than  Macaulay.  His  longest  and  most  complex  sen- 
tences are  thoroughly  periodic,  observing  strictly  the  laws  of  unity, 
and  they  are  always  relieved  by  a  succession  of  brief  sentences,  each 
usually  containing  a  single,  independent  assertion.  Take  the  follow- 
ing example,  from  his  description  of  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings : 

The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the  great  hall  of  William  Rufus ; 
the  hall  which  had  resounded  with  the  inauguration  of  thirty  kings;  the  hall 
whit  h  had  witnessed  the  just  sentence  of  Bacon  and  the  just  absolution  of 
Somers ;  the  hall  where  the  eloquence  of  Strafford  had  for  a  moment  awed  and 
melted  a  victorious  party  inflamed  with  just  resentment;  the  hall  where  Charles 
had  confronted  the  High  Court  of  Justice  with  the  placid  courage  which  has 
half  redeemed  his  fame.  Neither  military  nor  civil  pomp  was  wunting.  The 
avenues  were  lined  with  grenadiers.  The  streets  were  kept  clear  by  cavalry. 
The  peers,  robed  in  gold  and  ermine,  were  marshalled  l>y  the  bfldi  under 
Garter-King-at-Arms.  The  judges,  in  their  vestments  of  state,  attended  to  give 
advice  on  points  of  law. 


SENTENCES— UNITY.  125 

Some  of  the  subordinate  rules  to  be  observed  in  maintain- 
ing the  unity  of  a  sentence  are  the  following :  * 

1.  Change  of  Subject. 

During  the  course  of  the  sentence,  let  the  subject  be  changed 
as  little  as  possible. 

There  is  usually,  in  every  sentence,  some  one  person  or  thing 
which  is  the  object  of  general  interest.  Everything  else  moves 
round  this,  as  the  centre  of  the  thought.  If,  in  the  construction 
of  the  sentence,  this  person  or  thing  becomes  the  grammatical  sub- 
ject of  the  several  verbs,  if  it  is  also  that  to  which  the  several 
adjectives  or  particles  apply,  the  unity  of  the  sentence  is  at  once 
secured. 

"  After  we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  I  was  welcomed  by  all 
my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest  kindness."  Here  are  four  verbs, 
each  with  a  different  subject,  "  we,"  "  they,"  "  I,"  "  who."  The  mind  is  hurried 
from  one  subject  and  scene  to  another,  until  the  thoughts  are  a  perfect  chaos. 
Yet  if  we  stop  to  analyze  the  passage,  we  find  a  sufficient  bond  of  connection 
among  the  several  ideas.  The  connecting  link  is  the  person  of  the  narrator. 
Rearranging  the  sentence  on  this  basis,  we  have  the  following:  "  Having  come 
to  an  anchor,  /was  put  on  shore,  where  /was  welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  and 
received  with  the  greatest  kindness." 

"  The  highly  raised  expectation  of  the  audience  was  more  than  satisfied  with 
the  exuberance  of  his  thought  and  the  splendor  of  his  diction,  while  the  char- 
acter and  institutions  of  the  natives  of  India  were  described  by  him ;  the  circum- 
stances in  which  the  Asiatic  empire  of  Britain  had  originated,  were  recounted ; 
and  the  constitution  of  the  Company  and  of  the  English  Presidencies  was  set 
forth."  Here  are  four  separate  subjects,  carrying  the  mind  successively  to  four 
different  points  of  view,  and  thus  effectually  destroying  all  unity  of  thought. 
The  real  centre  of  interest  in  the  sentence  is  "  he,"  Burke,  the  orator.  See  how 
everything  crystallizes  around  this  central  idea  of  the  passage,  as  it  comes  from 
the  pen  of  Macaulay :  "  With  an  exuberance  of  thought  and  a  splendor  of  dic- 
tion which  more  than  satisfied  the  highly  raised  expectations  of  the  audience, 
he  described  the  character  and  institutions  of  the  natives  of  India;  recounted 
the  circumstances  in  which  the  Asiatic  empire  of  Britain  had  originated ;  and 
set  forth  the  constitution  of  the  Company  and  of  the  Presidencies." 

2.  Crowding  Together  Things  Unconnected. 

Do  not  crowd  into  one  sentence  things  which  have  so  little 
connection  that  they  can  just  as  well  be  divided  into  two  or 
more  sentences. 

♦Blair,  Lecture  XI. 
11* 


126  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

"  He  [Tillotson]  was  exceedingly  beloved  both  by  King  William  and  Queen 
Mary  wtio  nominated  Dr.  Tennison,  Bishop  of  London,  to  succeed  /u'm."  Here 
the  thought  in  the  latter  clause  has  no  natural  connection  with  that  in  the 
former,  and  the  two  should  not  be  connected  grammatically.  If  the  latter 
clause  contained  some  reason  why  the  deceased  Archbishop  had  been  so 
beloved  by  the  King  and  Queen,  as,  for  example,  "  who  had  known  him  inti- 
mately many  years,"  or,  if  it  contained  some  circumstance  showing  the  extent 
of  their  grief,  as,  "who  ordered  a  monument  to  his  memory  to  be  erected  in 
Westminster  Abbey,"  the  addition  of  the  clause  would  be  excusable.  As  it  is, 
the  two  clauses  contain  two  independent  assertions,  which  are  connected  gram- 
matically, though  unconnected  in  thought.  We  might  as  well  say,  "  The  flood 
carried  away  the  wire  bridge  built  by  Mr.  Roebling,  who  lives  in  the  city  of 
Trenton." 

"To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  Restoration, 
and  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  corrupt  our  language ;  which 
last  was  not  likely  to  be  much  improved  by  those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the 
court  of  King  Charles  the  Second ;  either  such  as  had  followed  him  in  his  ban- 
ishment, or  had  been  altogether  conversant  in  the  dialect  of  these  fanatic  times ; 
or  young  men  who  had  been  educated  in  the  same  country ;  so  that  the  court, 
which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then, 
and  I  think  has  ever  since  continued,  the  worst  school  in  England  for  that  ac- 
complishment ;  and  so  will  remain,  till  better  care  be  taken  in  the  education 
of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  be  set  out  in  the  world  with  some  foundation  of 
literature,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  patterns  of  politeness."— Swift. 

The  faults  of  this  sentence  are  manifold,  besides  its  utter  want  of 
unity.  The  only  way  thoroughly  to  remedy  these  faults  would  be 
to  rewrite  the  sentence,  preserving  the  thoughts,  but  paying  no 
regard  to  the  present  construction.  The  passage  may  be  to  some 
extent  improved  by  breaking  it  up  into  five  or  six  sentences,  with  a 
few  slight  verbal  changes,  thus : 

"  To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness,  which  entered  with  the  Restoration, 
and  [which],  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  corrupting]  our 
language.  This  last  was  not  likely  to  be  much  improved  by  those  who  at  that 
time  made  up  the  court  of  King  Charles  the  Second.  [These  were]  either  such 
as  had  followed  him  in  his  banishment,  or  such  as  had  been  altogether  con- 
versant in  the  dialect  of  these  fanatic  times ;  or  [they  were]  young  men  who 
had  been  educated  in  the  same  country  [with  him].  Consequently  the  court, 
which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then, 
as  I  think  [it]  has  ever  since  continued  [to  be],  the  worst  school  in  England 
for  that  accomplishment.  So  will  it  remain,  till  better  care  be  taken  in  the 
education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  be  set  out  in  the  world  with  some  foun- 
dation in  literature,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  patterns  of  politeness." 

3.  Relative  Clauses. 

Do  not  complicate  a  sentence  by  hanging  a  relative  clause 
upon  another  relative  clause  which  is  itself  in  a  dependent 
condition. 


SENTENCES— UNITY.  127 

What  is  not  Forbidden.—  This  rule  does  not  forbid  two  or  more 
relative  clauses  having  a  common  dependence  upon  some  preceding 
word  or  clause,  as,  for  example,  in  one  of  the  sentences  just  given  : 
"To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness,  which  entered  with  the 
Restoration,  and  which,  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell 
to  infecting  our  language."  The  two  clauses  here,  beginning  with 
"which,"  have  a  common  dependence  upon  "licentiousness."  The 
construction  therefore  is  allowable. 

"  Cicero  was  opposed  by  a  new  and  cruel  affliction,  the  death  of  his  beloved 
daughter  Tullia ;  which  happened  soon  after  her  divorce  from  Dolabella ;  whose 
manners  and  humors  were  entirely  disagreeable  to  him."  Here  the  third  clause, 
beginning  with  "  whose,"  is  dependent  upon  the  second,  beginning  with  "  which," 
and  that  in  turn  is  dependent  upon  the  first  or  principal  clause.  There  is  indeed 
a  connection  running  through  the  whole,  but  it  is  the  connection  of  links  in  a 
chain,  rather  than  that  of  independent  links  hanging  separately  upon  some 
common  support ;  and  this  hanging  of  one  relative  clause  upon  another  which 
is  itself  dependent  is  highly  objectionable. 

"  The  march  [of  the  Greeks]  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose  savage 
inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep, 
whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason  of  their  continual  feeding  upon 
sea-fish."  Here  the  second  relative  clause  is  directly  dependent  upon  the  first, 
as  the  first  is  upon  the  main  affirmation  of  the  sentence.  The  construction 
therefore  is  in  violation  of  the  rule.  The  second  "  whose  "  refers  to  "  sheep,"  the 
first  to  "  country."  They  marched  through  a  country  whose  inhabitants  ate  flesh 
which  was  bad.  The  essence  of  the  fault  here  consists,  not  In  there  being  no  con- 
nection in  the  things  mentioned,  but  in  this  repetition  of  the  "  which  "  without 
a  common  antecedent.  The  sentence  thereby  becomes  involved  and  its  unity 
impaired.  The  passage  may  be  greatly  improved  by  a  slight  alteration,  dividing 
it  into  two  sentences.  Thus :  "  The  march  of  the  Greeks  was  through  an  uncul- 
tivated country.  Its  savage  inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches 
than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory  by  reason  of 
their  continual  feeding  upon  sea-fish." 

4.  Parentheses. 

Keep  clear  of  parentheses. 

Blair's  Opinion  of  Parentheses. — "  On  some  occasions,  parentheses 
may  have  a  spirited  appearance,  as  prompted  by  a  certain  vivacity 
of  thought,  which  can  glance  happily  aside,  as  it  is  going  along. 
But,  for  the  most  part,  their  effect  is  extremely  bad ;  being  a  sort 
of  wheels  within  wheels ;  sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences ;  the 
perplexed  method  of  disposing  of  some  thought,  which  a  writer 
wants  art  to  introduce  in  its  proper  place." 

Danger  in  Using  Parentheses. —  Writers  who  indulge  much  in  the 
use  of  parentheses  are  apt  to  be  led  on  from  one  thing  to  another, 


128  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

until  the  starting-point  of  the  sentence  is  entirely  lost  sight  of,  and 
it  has  to  be  recalled  to  the  reader's  attention  by  "  I  say,"  or  some 
such  awkward  formula  of  repetition.  The  use  of  this  clumsy  device 
is  a  sure  sign  of  a  badly  constructed  sentence.  It  is  an  open  admis- 
sion on  the  part  of  the  writer,  that  his  sentence  has  become  involved, 
and  that  he  lacks  either  the  skill  or  the  industry  to  make  its  construc- 
tion better. 

5.  Supplementary  Clauses. 

Do  not  tack  on  an  additional  or  supplementary  clause,  after 
the  sentence  has  been  apparently  brought  to  a  close. 

"With  these  writings  [Cicero's],  young  divines  are  more  conversant  than  with 
those  of  Demosthenes,  who,  by  many  degrees,  excelled  the  other ;  at  least  as  an 
orator."  Any  one  reading  this  sentence  feels,  on  coming  to  "  other,"  as  if  the 
sense  was  completed,  and  the  voice  at  this  place  naturally  comes  to  a  halt.  The 
whole  structure  of  what  goes  before  creates  the  expectation  of  a  pause  here.  The 
proposition  is  concluded:  we  look  for  no  more.  The  added  words,  therefore, 
come  in  with  a  very  bad  grace.  How  much  better  the  sentence  would  have 
been,  if  constructed  thus :  "  With  these  writings  [Cicero's],  young  divines  are 
more  conversant  than  with  those  of  Demosthenes,  who,  as  an  orator  at  least, 
excelled,  by  many  degrees,  the  other." 

"  The  first  [writer]  could  not  end  his  learned  treatise  without  a  panegyric  of 
modern  learning,  in  comparison  of  the  ancient ;  and  the  other  falls  so  grossly 
into  the  censure  of  the  old  poetry,  and  preference  of  the  new,  that  I  could  not 
read  either  of  these  strains  without  some  indignation ;  which  no  quality  among 
men  is  so  apt  to  raise  in  me  as  self-sufficiency."  Here  "  indignation "  concludes  the 
sentence.  The  added  clause  is  a  new  and  independent  proposition,  and  ought 
to  make  a  separate  sentence. 

Blair  on  Supplementary  Clauses. — "  An  unfinished  sentence  is  no 
sentence  at  all.  But  very  often  we  meet  with  sentences  that  are, 
so  to  speak,  more  than  finished.  When  we  have  arrived  at  what  we 
expected  was  to  be  the  conclusion ;  when  we  have  come  to  the  word 
on  which  the  mind  is  naturally  led,  by  what  went  before,  to  rest ; 
unexpectedly,  some  circumstance  pops  out,  which  ought,  [either]  to 
have  been  omitted,  or  to  have  been  disposed  of  elsewhere ;  but  which 
is  left  lagging  behind,  like  a  tail  adjusted  to  the  sentence.  All  these 
adjections  to  the  proper  close  disfigure  a  sentence  extremely.  They 
give  it  a  lame,  ungraceful  aim,  and,  in  particular,  they  break  its 
unity." —  Blair. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Sentences  to  be  corrected  in  reference  to  Unity,  under  some  of  the  heads 
which  have  been  discussed.] 

1.  They  asserted  not  only  the  future  immortality,  but  the  past 


SENTENCES—UNITY.  129 

eternity  of  the  human  soul,  which  they  were  too  apt  to  consider  as 
a  portion  of  the  infinite  and  self-existing  spirit  which  pervades  and 
sustains  the  universe. 

2.  "These  things  regulate  themselves,"  in  common  phrase;  which 
means,  of  course,  that  God  regulates  them  by  his  general  laws,  which 
always,  in  the  long  run,  work  to  good. 

3.  Language  cannot  spring  from  intuition,  for  hearts/are  surely  the 
possessors  of  instinct,  which,  however,  does  fliot  lead  them  to  this 
method  of  expressing  themselves. 

4.  Here  and  there  some  remnant  of  a  large  monument  stands  as 
a  sentinel,  and  the  whole  structure  is  indeed  a  sublime  relic  of  past 
grandeur. 

5.  Thus  with  her  few  notes  does  nature  ring  the  changes  of  the 
seasons;  which  we  admire,  and  endeavoring  to  imitate,  find  but 
shadowy  success. 

6.  He  spoils  not  a  good  school  to  make  thereof  a  bad  college, 
therein  to  teach  his  scholars  logic. 

7.  In  this  way  the  several  churches  (in  which,  as  one  may  observe, 
opinions  are  preferred  to  life,  and  orthodoxy  is  that  which  they  are 
concerned  for,  and  not  morals)  put  the  terms  of  salvation  on  that 
which/ the  Author  of-irnr-sarvation  does  not  put  them  An. 

8.  There  you  are,  out  in  an  open  sea  outside,  and  all  at  sea  inside ; 
and  you  feel  the  need  of  a  chart  for  the  one,  and  an  anchor  for  the 
other,  if  you  can  find  one. 

9.  Dr.  Kane  described  the  Arctic  silence  as  sometimes  almost 
dreadful ;  and  one  day  at  dinner,  while  Thackeray  was  quietly 
smoking,  a»4  Kane  was  fresh  from  his  travels,  he  told  them  a  story 
of  a  sailor  reading  Pendennis. 

10.  They  told  me,  if  I  would  do  as  you  wished,  my  father,  who 
loves  me  devotedly,  would  answer  all  the  questions  she  asked. 

11.  The  good  old  man  soon  grew  weary  of  the  gay  life  in  the 
house  of  his  son,  who  had  taken  first-honors  at  college,  and  spent 
much  time  and  money  in  the  entertainment  of  his  sporting  friends. 

12.  He  fell  into  trouble  by  his  first  remarks,  which  might  be  cor- 
rected by  his  subsequent  behavior  after  a  long  acquaintance  with 
Dr.  Johnson,  whose  readiness  to  forgive  was  well  known. 

13.  As  we  walked  through  the  beautiful  streets,  whose  sides  were 
lined  with  maple-trees,  whose  leaves  were  just  changing  their  color, 
we  wondered  whose  taste  had  planted  the  town. 

14.  She  said,  if  she  could  find  some  one  (even  if  she  should  not  be 

I 


130  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

old  enough,  and  competent  to  do  the  work  required)  for  a  few  weeks, 
she  should  be  thankful. 

15.  One  bright  evening  in  June,  as  I  ran  down  to  the  post-office 
to  get  the  letters  for  father,  (for  I  thought  it  possible  James  had 
written,  and  I  stopped  to  see  if  I  should  inquire  for  our  next-door 
neighbor,)  I  met  the  most  remarkable-looking  woman. 

16.  I  am  entirely  determined,  under-any  circumstances,  to  make 
the  journey,  unless  it  rains. 

17.  There  is  to  be  a  grand  wedding  next  week,  to  which  we  are 
all  to  be  invited,  or  at  least  so  I  hear. 

18.  The  equinoctial  storm  occurred  last  Tuesday,  during  which  the 
lightning  struck  a  tree  near  the  church  that  was  built  last  spring. 

19.  Having  finished  his  house,  and  furnished  it  handsomely,  he 
moved  into  it  on  the  22d  of  February,  which  is  Washington's  birth- 
day. 

20.  When  the  news  of  the  victory  was  received  at  Washington, 
the  people  exhibited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  as  it  was  natural  that 
they  should. 

21.  "Mind  your  own  business"  is  an  ancient  proverb,  (indeed  all 
proverbs  seem  to  be  ancient,)  which  deserves  a  due  degree  of  atten- 
tion from  all  mankind. 

22.  He  built  a  large  stone  house  on  the  brow  of  the  hill,  (it  cost 
ten  thousand  dollars,)  which  commanded  a  fine  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

23.  The  vessel  made  for  the  shore,  and  the  passengers  soon 
crowded  into  the  boats,  and  reached  the  beach  in  safety,  where  the 
inhabitants  received  them  with  the  utmost  kindness,  and  a  shelter 
was  provided  for  them. 

24.  The  colonel  ordered  the  regiment  forward,  and  the  men,  ad- 
vancing cautiously,  discovered  a  mine  which  the  enemy  had  made, 
in  order,  if  possible,  to  blow  them  to  pieces. 

25.  As  we  rode  to  town,  we  met  a  man  with  a  flock  of  geese,  who 
was  talking  to  a  little  girl,  in  a  pink  sun-bonnet,  who  was  carrying 
a  basket  on  her  arm,  containing  a  few  radishes. 

26.  The  boy  left  the  house  with  a  rake  in  his  hand,  which  his 
father  bought  at  Smithville,  where  Mr.  Jones  lives,  who  lost  four 
children  by  the  scarlet-fever  last  winter,  when  we  had  that  dreadful 
snow-storm. 


SENTENCES— STRENG  TIT.  131 

RULE  IV.— STRENGTH. 

A  Sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  give  to  the  Thought 
or  Meaning  which  it  contains  its  full  force. 

What  is  Meant  by  Strength.  —  The  quality  here  referred  to  is  vari- 
ously designated,  as  strength,  energy,  animation,  vividness,  and  so 
forth.  The  rules  already  given  are  all  preliminary  and  preparatory 
to  this.  By  Rule  I,  we  secure  simply  the  clear  expression  of  the 
meaning.  But  the  meaning  may  be  expressed  in  such  a  way  that  we 
cannot  mistake  it,  and  yet  with  such  feebleness  of  style  as  to  make 
no  impression.  Rule  II  advances  a  little  from  this  mere  negative 
quality,  and  by  giving  a  proper  position  to  the  main  subject  and 
predicate  of  the  sentence,  makes  them  emphatic,  and  thus  gives  some 
positive  addition  to  the  forcibleness  of  the  expression.  Rule  III,  by 
securing  an  harmonious  and  rounded  whole,  removes  obstacles,  and 
clears  the  way  for  a  free  current  of  the  thought.  Something  more, 
however,  is  needed  than  this.  A  sentence  may  express  the  author's 
meaning,  it  may  give  emphasis  to  the  leading  parts,  it  may  observe 
the  strictest  rules  of  unity,  and  yet  we  feel  that  it  wants  something. 
The  author's  meaning  is  not  expressed  with  that  force  of  which  it 
is  capable.  Of  course,  it  does  not  belong  to  Style  to  give  rules  for 
obtaining  forcible  or  strong  thoughts.  That  belongs  to  Invention. 
But  supposing  an  author  to  have  a  certain  thought  in  his  mind,  it  is 
the  business  of  the  part  of  Rhetoric  which  we  are  now  studying,  to 
show  how  that  idea  or  thought  may  be  so  expressed  as  to  produce 
the  strongest  impression. 

In  constructing  a  sentence  so  as  to  secure  for  it  the  full  strength  of  which  the 
thought  is  capable,  several  subordinate  rules  are  to  be  observed. 

1.  Redundant  Words. 
A  sentence  is  made  stronger  by  leaving  out  redundant 
words.     It  may  be  taken  for  granted,  that  whatever  in  a 
sentence  does  not  add  to  the  meaning  enfeebles  it.     Every 
redundant  word  is  so  much  dead  weight. 

"  The  least  that  is  said  on  the  subject,  the  soonest  it  will  be  mended,"  expresses 
the  idea  clearly  enough,  but  not  with  haU  the  force  of  the  usual  expression, 
"  Least  said,  soonest  mended." 

"  Content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it,"  is  a  livelier 
expression  than  "  Being  content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  declined  the  honor 
of  it." 


132  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

"  There  is  nothing  which  so  soon  perverts  the  judgment  as  the  hahit  of  drink- 
ing intoxicating  liquors"  becomes  much  more  sprightly  by  leaving  out  the  un- 
necessary words,  thus:  "  Nothing  perverts  the  judgment  so  soon  as  the  habit  of 
drinking  intoxicating  liquors." 

Necessity  of  Pruning.  —  In  the  first  draught  of  any  piece  of  com- 
position, we  are  apt  to  use  inversions  and  circumlocutions  of  this 
kind.  A  severe  eye  therefore  should  be  used  in  revising  and  prun- 
ing our  expressions.  In  this  revision  we  should  lop  off  every  word 
which  does  not  add  something  to  the  sense.  The  only  exception  to 
this  is  where  the  inversion  is  needed  for  securing  the  emphasis. 

Whole  Clauses  are  sometimes  redundant.  As  every  word  ought 
to  present  some  new  idea,  so  every  new  clause  or  member  of  the 
sentence  ought  to  present  some  new  thought. 

"  The  very  first  discovery  of  beauty  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and 
spreads  delight  through  all  its  faculties.'"  Here  the  second  clause  adds  little,  if  any- 
thing, to  the  thought  contained  in  the  first.  The  repetition  of  the  same  idea  in 
words  slightly  different  only  enfeebles  the  expression.  It  has  a  similar  effect  to 
that  produced  by  putting  an  additional  pint  of  water  into  a  beverage  already 
compounded  exactly  to  one's  taste.  Sentences,  as  well  as  tea  and  coffee,  lose 
flavor  by  being  too  much  watered. 

Source  of  Redundancy.— A  common  source  of  redundancy  is  the  use  of  a 

separate  word  to  express  an  idea  which  is  implied  in  one  of  the  words  already 
used.  "  To  return  "  is  "  to  go  back."  The  expression  "  returning  back,"  is  there- 
fore redundant.  The  sentence,  "  They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  city  from 
whence  they  came  forth,"  contains  five  redundant  words.  The  idea  is  expressed 
with  sufficient  clearness,  but  it  has  not  so  much  force  as  when  we  say  simply, 
"  They  returned  to  the  city  whence  they  came." 

"  The  boy  had  his  pocket  full  of  a  great  many  apples,"  is  an  example  of  the  same 
kind. 

Error  in  the  Opposite  Direction.  —  Before  dismissing  the  subject 
of  redundancy,  it  may  be  observed  that  sometimes  words  are  left 
out  which  ought  really  to  be  kept  in.  This  is  true  especially  of  the 
Relative  pronoun.  The  ellipsis  of  the  relative  may  be  sometimes 
allowable  in  conversation,  where  the  meaning  is  helped  out  a  good 
deal  by  the  tone,  emphasis,  and  gesture,  and  also  in  familiar  letters; 
but  in  serious  composition  such  ellipsis  should  rarely  take  place. 
The  insertion  of  the  relative  in  its  proper  place  almost  always  makes 
the  meaning  more  precise  and  determinate.  "The  man  I  loved" 
should  be  "The  man  whom  I  loved."  "The  dominions  we  pos- 
s<  —  <1,  and  the  conquests  we  made"  should  be  "The  dominions 
which  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  which  we  made." 


S ENTENCES—  STRENG  TH.  1 33 

2.  The  Use  of  Very,  and  other  Intensive  Expressions. 

A  sentence  is  made  stronger  by  avoiding  the  too  frequent 
use  of  very,  and  of  other  intensive  or  superlative  expressions. 
Inexperienced  writers  would  do  well,  after  completing  any 
piece  of  composition,  to  go  through  it,  pen  in  hand,  and  strike 
out  three-fourths  of  the  epithets,  every  superlative,  and  every 
u  very,"  which  the  sense  does  not  imperatively  demand. 

Blair  says,  in  speaking  of  sublimity,  "  It  is  not  easy  to  describe  in  words  the 
precise  impression  which  great  and  sublime  objects  make  upon  us.  .  .  .  The 
emotion  is  certainly  delightful,  but  it  is  altogether  of  the  serious  kind."  A 
feeble  writer,  wishing  to  express  the  same  idea,  would  be  apt  to  dilute  it,  as 
follows :  "  It  is  not  very  easy  to  describe  in  words  merely  the  precise  and  exact 
impressions  which  very  great  and  sublime  objects  make  upon  us.  The  emotion 
most  certainly  is  extremely  delightful,  but  still  it  is  altogether  of  a  very  serious  and 
solemn  kind." 

3.  Words  of  Connection  and  Transition. 

The  strength  of  a  sentence  may  often  be  increased  by  care 
in  the  use  of  the  words  employed  to  mark  connection  or 
transition.  These  are  chiefly  the  relative  pronouns,  the  con- 
junctions, and  the  prepositions. 

"  These  little  words,  but,  and,  which,  whose,  where,  etc.,  are  frequently  the  most 
important  of  any ;  they  are  the  joints  or  hinges  upon  which  all  sentences  turn, 
and  of  course,  much,  both  of  the  gracefulness  and  strength  of  sentences,  must 
depend  upon  such  particles."— Blair. 

No  system  of  rules  can  be  framed  to  suit  all  the  cases  that  arise 
under  this  head.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  give  a  few  examples, 
with  the  observations  which  naturally  grow  out  of  them. 

Splitting  Particles.—"  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from, 
yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune." 
This  kind  of  construction  is  called  splitting  particles.  (It  consists 
in  separating  a  preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governsj  This 
violent  separation  of  things  which  ought  to  be  closely  united  gives 
an  unsatisfied  and  displeased  feeling  to  the  mind.  It  brings  the 
current  of  thought  to  a  disagreeable  stand-still,  and  obliges  us  to 
rest  for  a  time  on  a  little  word  which  carries  no  meaning  with  it 
until  it  is  connected  with  its  proper  object.  A  better  arrangement 
of  the  sentence  would  have  been,  "  Though  virtue  borrows  no  as- 
sistance from  the  advantages  of  fortune,  yet  it  may  often  be  ac- 
companied by  them." 
12 


134  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

Management  of  And.—  Considerable  skill  is  needed  for  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  the  conjunction  and.  It  is  often  used  for  stringing  one  clause  upon 
Another  in  a  careless,  slipshod  way,  which  has  an  enfeebling  effect  upon  the 
style.  "  The  Academy  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of  that 
age  and  country,  and  divert  them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry, 
brought  this  into  vogue ;  and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this  last  age,  been  wholly 
turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style  and  language;  and,  indeed,  with  such 
success,  that  it  can  hardly  be  equalled,  and  runs  equally  through  their  verse  and 
their  prose."  Here  are  two  faults,  first  an  undue  repetition  of  the  "and ; "  sec- 
ondly, putting  into  one  sentence  what  would  be  more  effective  if  made  into  two 
or  three  sentences.  Thus :  M  The  Academy  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to 
amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  and  country,  and  [to]  divert  them  from  raking  into 
his  politics  and  ministry,  brought  this  into  vogue.  The  French  wits  have  [ac- 
cordingly] for  this  last  age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style 
and  language,  and  with  such  success,  that  it  can  hardly  be  equalled.  It  runs 
equally  through  their  verse  and  their  prose." 

Apparent  Paradox. —  Here  we  may  notice  an  apparent  paradox  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  conjunctions.  The  object  of  the  conjunction  is 
to  join  words  together,  so  as  to  make  their  connection  more  close; 
yet  in  effect  we  often  mark  a  closer  connection  by  omitting  the  con- 
necting word.  "  [Charity]  beareth  all  things,  believeth  all  things, 
hopeth  all  things,  endureth  all  things."  Here,  by  omitting  the  con- 
junction between  the  verbs,  we  actually  bring  the  several  effects  or 
operations  more  closely  together.*  In  consequence  of  the  conjunc- 
tion being  out  of  the  way,  the  mind  passes  more  quickly  from 
thought  to  thought.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  writer  wishes 
us  to  rest  for  a  moment  on  each  item  in  an  enumeration  of  particu- 
lars, the  conjunction  is  repeated  after  each.  "  Such  a  man  might 
fall  a  victim  to  power ;  but  truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty,  would 
fall  with  him." 

Ittair's  Observation. — "  It  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  language,  that  the 
omission  of  a  connecting  particle  should  sometimes  serve  to  make  objects  appear 
more  closely  connected ;  and  that  the  repetition  of  it  should  distinguish  and 
separate  them,  in  some  measure,  from  each  other.  Hence,  the  omission  of  it  is 
used  to  denote  rapidity ;  and  the  repetition  of  it  is  designed  to  retard  and  to  ag- 
gravate. The  reason  seems  to  be,  that,  in  the  former  case,  the  mind  is  supposed 
to  be  hurried  so  fast  through  a  quick  succession  of  objects,  that  it  has  not  leisure 
to  point  out  their  connection  ;  it  drops  the  copulatives  in  its  hurry;  and  crowds 
the  whole  series  together,  as  if  it  were  but  one  object  When  we  enumerate, 
with  a  view  to  aggravate,  the  mind  is  supposed  to  proceed  with  a  more  slow  and 
solemn  pace;  it  marks  fully  the  relation  of  each  object  to  that  which  succeeds 

♦This  Bgurc,  oalled  Asyndeton  (omitting  the  connectives),  was  much  practised  hv 
Greek  end  Roman  writers,  mid  nme  examples  have  attained  historical  celebrity,  ai 
tin'  Vt ni.ii,n,  ,-iri  of  Cejear, and  the  AbUL areatttf, «wi<, mmfU  of  Cicero.  So  also 
tlie  opposite  figure,  Polysyndeton  (multiplying  the  connectives),  was  much  In  vogue 
among  lluiu. 


SENTENCES— STRENGTH.  135 

It;  and,  by  joining  them  together  with  several  copulatives,  makes  you  perceive 
that  the  objects,  though  connected,  are  yet  in  themselves  distinct ;  that  they  are 
many,  not  one." 

Some  examples  will  illustrate  these  points : 

"  One  effort,  one,  to  break  the  circling  host ; 
They  form,  unite,  charge,  waver,  —  all  is  lost !  "—Byron. 

.    .    .    "Of  their  wonted  vigor  left  them  drained, 
Exhausted,  spiritless,  afflicted,  fallen." — Milton. 

Observe  how  the  repetition  of  the  and  in  the  following  enumera- 
tion, serves  to  separate  the  several  items,  and  thus  to  intensify  and 
aggravate  the  whole : 

"Love  was  not  in  their  looks,  either  to  God 
Or  to  each  other,  but  apparent  guilt, 
And  shame,  and  perturbation,  and  despair, 
Anger,  and  obstinacy,  and  hate,  and  guile."—  Milton. 

Observe,  too,  how  the  supplies  needed  by  David  and  his  men  seem 
to  be  piled  up  in  his  camp  by  the  eager  zeal  of  the  country  people : 

"  They  brought  beds,  and  basins,  and  earthen  vessels,  and  wheat,  and  barley, 
and  flour,  and  parched  corn,  and  beans,  and  lentils,  and  parched  pulse,  and 
honey,  and  butter,  and  sheep,  and  cheese  of  kine."— 2  Sam.  xvii.  28, 29. 

So,  too,  our  Saviour,  in  his  description  of  the  house  upon  the 
sand,  by  repeating  the  conjunction  obliges  the  mind  of  the  reader 
to  dwell  on  each  successive  stage  in  the  sad  catastrophe  : 

"And  the  rain  descended,  and  the  floods  came,  and  the  winds  blew,  and  beat 
upon  that  house ;  and  it  fell ;  and  great  was  the  fall  of  it."—  Matt.  vii.  27, 28. 

A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  the  repetition  of  or  and  nor. 

"  I  am  persuaded,  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities, 
nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any 
other  creature  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in 
Christ  Jesus  our  Lord."—  Rom.  viii.  38,  39. 

"Thus  with  the  year 
Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine."—  Milton. 

4.  Bringing  to  a  Conclusion. 

The  strength  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  due  care  in 
bringing  it  to  a  conclusion. 


136  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

The  Beason. — The  mind  naturally  dwells  upon  the  last  word.  "We 
should  be  careful  therefore  not  to  end  a  sentence  with  any  word 
that  is  comparatively  unimportant,  mean,  or  belittling.  Such  words 
should  be  disposed  of  in  some  less  conspicuous  place. 

It  is  rarely  expedient  to  end  a  sentence  with  an  adverb. 

"  Such  things  were  not  allowed  formerly"  This  sentence  gains  decidedly  in 
strength  by  transposing  the  adverb  thus :  "  Formerly  such  things  were  not  al- 
lowed." It  may  be  indeed  that  the  adverb  is  emphatic.  In  that  case,  it  should 
of  course  be  placed  wherever  the  emphasis  will  be  brought  out  most  clearly,  as 
in  this  sentence :  "  In  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me ;  in 
their  adversity,  always." 

Avoid  ending  a  sentence  with  a  preposition. 

"  Avarice  is  a  vice  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of."  Change  thus :  "  Ava- 
rice is  a  vice  of  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty." 

"  He  is  one  whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  acquainted  with."  Change  thus : 
"  He  is  one  with  whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  acquainted." 

Objections  to  Ending  with  a  Preposition.  —  Besides  the  want  of  dignity 
which  arises  from  ending  a  sentence  with  one  of  these  small  monosyllables, 
with,  from,  of,  in,  to,  by.  and  so  on.  the  mind,  as  already  stated,  cannot  help 
resting  for  a  moment  upon  the  last  word ;  and  if  that  word,  instead  of  present- 
ing some  idea  or  picture  to  the  imagination,  some  substantive  import  of  its  own, 
merely  serves  to  point  out  the  relation  of  some  other  words,  the  effect  cannot  be 
otherwise  than  enfeebling. 

To  laugh  at,  etc.— The  rule  is  not  to  be  observed  so  strictly  in  the  case  of 
prepositions  which  are  used  after  a  verb  in  such  close  relation  to  it  as  to  make  a 
virtual  compound,  like  laugh  at,  bring  about,  lay  hold  of,  clear  up,  etc.  Even  in 
these  cases,  however,  it  is  desirable,  so  far  as  we  can,  to  find  some  simple  verb, 
of  the  same  meaning,  wherewith  to  end  the  sentence. 

The  Pronoun  "it,"  especially  when  accompanied  with  a  preposi- 
tion, as  with  it,  in  it,  to  it,  etc.,  makes  a  feeble  ending  to  the  sen- 
tence. 

"  There  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing  and  triumphant  consideration 
in  religion,  than  this,  of  the  perpetual  progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards 
the  perfection  of  its  nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a  period  in  it." 

An  unimportant  phrase  or  circumstance  brings  up  the  rear  of  a 
sentence  with  a  bad  grace. 

"  Let  me,  therefore,  conclude  by  repeating,  that  division  has  caused  all  the 
mischief  or  lament;  that  union  alone  can  retrieve  it;  and  that  a  great  advance 
towards  this  union,  was  the  coalition  of  parties,  so  happily  begun,  so  successfully 
carried  on,  and  of  late  so  unaccountably  neglected;  to  say  no  worse."  The  con- 
chiding  phrase,  which  I  have  placed  in  italics,  makes  a  sad  falling  off  in  a  sen- 
tence otherwise  admirably  constructed. 


SENTENCES— STRENGTH.  137 

Faulty  Contrasts. — Observe  how  a  sentence  is  weakened  by  faulty- 
contrasts  : 

"  William  is  the  better  reader,  but  John  writes  best." 

"  I  cannot  draw  as  well  as  I  am  able  to  sing." 

"Philadelphia  is  the  largest  in  extent,  but  New  York  contains  a  greater  num- 
ber of  inhabitants." 

"  The  President  holds  the  Executive  power  of  the  land,  but  the  Legislative 
power  is  vested  in  Congress." 

5.  Contrasted  Changes. 

In  cases  of  contrast,  the  sentence  becomes  stronger  and 
more  effective,  if  the  contrasted  members  are  constructed  alike. 

"  The  laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit ;  the  serious  part  of  mankind  for 
those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side."  Correct  thus :  "  The  laughers  will  be 
for  those  who  have  most  wit;  the  serious  for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their 
side." 

"  Ignorance  is  a  blank  sheet,  on  which  we  must  write ;  error,  a  scribbled  one, 
from  which  we  must  erase." 

No  English  writer  is  more  observant  of  this  rule  than  Junius. 
Much  indeed  of  the  force  of  his  invective  is  due  to  the  perfection 
of  his  sentences  in  this  respect. 

"  They  are  still  base  enough  to  encourage  the  follies  of  your  age,  as  they  once 
did  the  vices  of  your  youth." 

"  They  tell  you,  that ....  as  you  lived  without  virtue,  you  should  die  without 
repentance." 

6.  Climax. 

A  sentence  consisting  of  several  clauses  receives  a  great 
increase  of  strength  by  having  its  clauses  arranged  with  a 
view  to  a  climax. 

The  following  psssages  afford  instances  of  this  style  of  construction : 
"  The  power  of  man,  his  greatness,  his  glory,  depend  on  essential  qualities." 
"A  word  from  his  lips,  a  thought  from  his  brain,  might  turn  their  hearts, 
might  influence  their  passions,  might  change  their  opinions,  might  affect  their 
destiny." 

"  This  decency,  this  grace,  this  propriety  of  manners  to  character,  is  so  essen- 
tial to  princes  in  particular,  that,  whenever  it  is  neglected,  their  virtues  lose  a 
great  degree  of  lustre,  and  their  defects  acquires  much  aggravation.  Nay,  more ; 
by  neglecting  this  decency  and  this  grace,  and  for  want  of  a  sufficient  regard  to 
appearances,  even  their  virtues  may  betray  them  into  failings,  their  failings  into 
vices,  and  their  vices  into  habits  unworthy  of  princes,  and  unworthy  of  men." 

Climax  not  Common. — It  is  not  always  easy  to  construct  a  sen- 
tence in  this  way,  that  is,  with  a  succession  of  clauses,  each  rising 
12* 


138  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

and  growing  in  importance  above  its  predecessor.  Not  every  sub- 
jects admits  of  such  an  arrangement,  nor  would  it  be  desirable  to 
construct  all  our  sentences,  or  even  a  majority  of  them,  on  this 
model.  The  effect  would  be  to  destroy  all  simplicity,  and  to  make 
the  style  stiff  and  pompous.  Yet  an  occasional  climax,  brought  in 
at  the  right  time  and  place,  has  a  powerful  effect. 

Climax  of  Sentences. —  Not  only  clauses  of  the  same  sentence  should 
be  arranged  with  reference  to  this  idea,  but  two  or  more  indepen- 
dent sentences,  coming  in  succession,  may  be  made  more  effective 
by  a  similar  arrangement.  The  general  rule  of  Quintilian  on  the 
subject  is,  "That  a  weaker  assertion  or  proposition  should  never 
come  after  a  stronger  one." 

Cicero  uses  the  following  climax  in  his  oration  against  Verres :  "  To  bind  a 
Roman  citizen  is  an  outrage ;  to  scourge  him  is  an  atrocious  crime ;  to  put  him  to 
death  is  almost  a  parricide ;  but  to  put  him  to  death  by  crucifixion,— what  shall 
I  call  it?" 

Minor  Climax. —  Besides  this  elaborate  sort  of  climax,  which  is 
necessarily  only  of  occasional  occurrence,  there  is  a  minor  species  of 
climax  which  demands  constant  attention.  Very  many  sentences, 
perhaps  one-half  or  one-third  of  all  that  occur  in  ordinary  composi- 
tion, consist  of  two  members  or  clauses,  and  of  these  clauses  one  is 
ordinarily  longer  than  the  other.  In  such  cases,  unless  in  any  par- 
ticular instance  there  is  some  reason  to  the  contrary,  the  shorter 
clause  should  come  first.  Periods,  thus  divided,  are  pronounced 
more  easily.  Besides  this,  the  shortest  member  being  placed  first, 
we  carry  it  more  readily  in  our  memory  while  proceeding  to  the 
second. 

"  When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that 
we  have  forsaken  them."  This  is  a  better  sentence  than  it  would  be,  if  the 
clauses  were  transposed,  thus :  "  We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have 
forsaken  our  passions,  when  they  have  forsaken  us." 

Examples.—  The  following  examples  will  show  how  the  meaning 
may  be  weakened,  and  even  made  ridiculous,  by  a  poorly  arranged 

climax : 

Oh  dear!  oh  dear!  what  shall  I  do? 
I  've  lost  my  wife  and  seed-corn  too ! 
He  lost  his  wife,  his  child,  his  household  goods,  and  his  dog.  at  one  fell  swoop. 
David  was  a  great  warrior,  a  great  statesman,  a  great  poet,  and  a  skilful  per- 
former on  the  harp. 

What  were  the  results  of  this  conduct?— beggary !  dishonor!  utter  ruin !  and 
a  broken  leg ! 


SENTENCES— STRENGTH.  139 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Sentences  containing  violations  of  some  of  the  rules  laid  down  for  promoting 
Strength.  The  student  is  expected  to  point  out  the  inaccuracy,  and  to  recon- 
struct the  sentences,  avoiding  that  particular  fault.] 

1.  Of  his  ascent  up  Mount  Vesuvius,  he  gives  a  very  interesting 
account. 

2.  When  such  a  man  is  found,  his  name  is  in  every  one's  mouth, 
his  praises  are  sounded  by  all. 

3.  He  goes  to  Europe  in  order  to  recover  his  health  from  a  severe 
attack  of  bronchitis.  ;  •  >; 

4.  Few  have  ever  described  Niagara  with  so_m»ch  vividness  as 
this  author. 

5.  We  delight  in  such  a  work,  whether  it  pleases  the  eye,  enriches 
the  understanding,  or  supplies  our  humbler  needs. 

6.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  drew  prognostics  from  prodigies,  that 
is  to  say,  from  rare  natural  appearances;  among  which  comets, 
meteors,  and  eclipses  held  an  important  place. 

7.  Tho  wholo  of  it  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  judicial  calmness. 

8.  When  will  the  curtain  rise  upj 

9.  He  reduced  the  pounds  down  to  shillings  and  pence. 

10.  From- whence  did  he  come? 

11.  As  I  previously  remarked  before  now,  I  say  again. 

12.  The  sentence  is  full  of  the -greatest  number  of  mistakes. 

13.  I  have  got,  at  the  very  lowest  calculation,  at  least  one  hun- 
dred votes. 

14.  I  was  sorry  to  hear  that  you  were  an  invalid,  that  is  to  say, 
that  you  den%-enjoy_ge©d  health. 

15.  I  am  quite  certain  that  he  was  the  ve*^  identical  boy  to  whom 
you  allude. 

16.  He  took  it  from,  and  would  not  return  it  to,  the  child. 

17.  He  walked  past,  but  did  not  enter  into,  the  garden. 

18.  There  was  no  evidence  of  habitation  about  the  place,  and  nei- 
ther leaf  nor  bud  was  to  be  seen,  and  the  quail  piped,  and  the  crow 
croaked  dismally  and  unceasingly,  and  all  things  were  dreary  and 
unattractive. 

19.  He  was  sure  to  give  the  correct  word  exaotlyt 

20.  I  will  do  it,  perhaps. 

21.  It  is  a  house  I  should  never  be  willing  to  live  in. 

22.  That  is  a  vice  you  cannot  accuse  me  of. 

23.  The  wrongs  of  Ireland  will  crumble  under  one  well-directed 


140  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

blow,  and  D'Israeli  is  the  one  man  in  Parliament  who  knows  how 
to  attend  to  it. 

24.  The  men  were  wearied  with  the  exertions  of  the  preceding 
days,  yet  he  urged  them  on. 

25.  I  do  not  know  what  the  house  is  built  of. 

26.  I  cannot  tell  what  street  he  lives  in. 

27.  He  behaved  much  more  dishonorably  than  was  anticipated. 

28.  The  house  was  closely  crowded  with  an  immense  number  of 
people. 

29.  They  ascended  up  the  hill. 

30.  They  descended  down  into  the  valley. 
81.  I  will  recompense  him  back  again. 

RULE  V.  —  HARMONY. 

A  Sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  have  a  Pleasing 
Effect  upon  the  ear. 

The  Rules  thus  far  have  had  reference  to  the  following  points :  1.  Clearness,  2. 
Emphasis,  3.  Unity,  4.  Strength.  Sentences  are  now  to  be  considered  in  reference 
to  Harmony,  or  mere  agreeableness  to  the  ear. 

1.  The  Prevalence  of  Pleasant  Sounds. 

The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  the  prevalence 
in  it  of  pleasant  sounds. 

Sound  not  to  be  Disregarded.— Sound,  though  a  quality  much  infe- 
rior to  sense,  is  yet  not  to  be  disregarded.  Men  are  influenced,  not 
merely  by  what  is  reasonable,  but  by  what  is  agreeable,  and  no 
thought  can  be  entirely  agreeable  which  is  communicated  to  the 
mind  by  means  of  harsh  and  unpleasant  sounds. 

The  manner  in  which  a  sentence  sounds  depends,  first  upon  the 
choice  of  words,  secondly  upon  their  arrangement. 

Choice  of  Words.— Some  words  are  in  themselves  more  agreeable 
to  the  ear  than  others.  No  definite  rules  can  be  given  for  determin- 
ing what  words  have  a  musical  sound.  The  following  points,  how- 
ever, may  be  assumed :  1.  Whatever  words  are  difficult  of  pronun- 
ciation are,  in  the  same  proportion,  harsh  and  painful  to  the  ear. 
2.  A  preponderance  of  vowels  and  liquids  gives  softness  to  the  sound 
and  ease  in  pronunciation.  3.  The  same  effect  is  produced  by  a 
proper  alternation  of  vowels  and  consonants.     Several  vowels  com- 


SENTENCES— HARMONY.  141 

ing  together  require  the  mouth  to  be  opened  disagreeably.  Several 
consonants  coming  together,  particularly  if  they  are  mutes,  close  the 
organs  to  an  extext  that  makes  the  utterance  difficult. 

Take  the  word  antiquity.  Dropping  the  consonants,  we  have  aiui y;  dropping 
the  vowels,  we  have  ntqt.  The  former  combination  is  difficult  of  utterance  on 
account  of  the  hiatus  after  each  of  the  vowels ;  the  latter,  on  account  of  the  entire 
absence  of  hiatus.  We  pass  more  easily  from  one  vowel  to  another  for  having  a 
consonant  between  them,  and  more  easily  from  one  consonant  to  another  for 
having  a  vowel  between  them.  A  word  in  which  the  vowels  and  consonants  are 
duly  mixed  up  is  on  that  account  more  easily  pronounced  and  more  agreeable  to 
the  ear.  Any  one  can  test  this  by  uttering  such  euphonious  combinations  as  mer- 
rily, happiness,  remedy,  obloquy,  demeanor,  sonorous,  bridal,  tidal,  hymnal,  etc.,  or 
such  difficult  combinations  as  quench'd,  writst,  placedst,  bak'dst. 

A  Beautiful  Example. —  Nothing  can  be  imagined  softer  or  more 
euphonious  than  the  following  lines,  in  which  every  vowel  regularly 
alternates  with  a  consonant,  and  nearly  every  consonant  is  a  liquid : 

Lay  him  low,  lay  him  low, 
In  the  clover  or  the  snow : 
What  cares  he?  he  cannot  know: 
Lay  him  low.  —  Boker. 

A  word,  though  otherwise  euphonious,  is  disagreeable  to  the  ear.  (1.)  When 
two  syllables  of  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same  sound,  succeed  each  other,  as  in 
lowlily,  holily,  gaylily,  sillily ;  (2.)  When  there  is  a  long  succession  of  unaccented 
syllables,  as  in  cursorily,  arbitrarily,  peremptoriness,  meteorological,  anthropologi- 
cal, etc. 

Arrangement  of  Words.  —  Words  which  by  themselves  are  suffi- 
ciently euphonious  sometimes  displease  the  ear  on  account  of  their 
proximity  to  certain  other  words  in  the  sentence. 

This  is  the  case  whenever  in  contiguous  words  there  are  similar  combinations 
of  sounds;  as,  His  history;  I  can  candidly  say;  I  confess  with  humility  the 
deb*7%of  my  judgment;  sterile  ^literacy ;  bring  gingham;  they  stood  up  upon 
their  feet ;  he  will  wtffully  persist ;  the  man  manfully  endured. 

The  following  curious  lines  illustrate  the  point : 

O'er  the  sea  see  the  flamingo  flaming  go, 
The  lark  hie  high,  the  swallow  follow  low; 
The  small  bees  busy  at  their  threshold  old, 
And  lambs  lamenting  the  threefold  fold. 

Alternation  of  Soft  and  Harsh  Sounds.  — The  ear  is  pleased  with 
such  an  arrangement  of  words  that  soft  and  liquid  sounds  alternate 
in  due  proportion  with  sounds  that  are  rugged  and  comparatively 
harsh.     A  long  succession  of  words  in  which  there  are  but  few  con- 


142  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

sonants,  and  those  chiefly  liquids,  gives  for  a  time  the  idea  of  light- 
ness and  grace;  but  if  the  peculiarity  is  pushed  too  far,  it  produces 
at  length  the  impression  of  weakness  and  effeminacy. 

Observe  the  multiplication  of  liquid  sounds  in  the  following  lines  from  Poe : 

And  neither  the  angels  in  heaven  above, 

Nor  the  demons  down  under  the  sea, 
Can  ever  dissever  my  soul  from  the  soul 

Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee. 

Contrast  these  with  the  second  of  the  following  lines : 

His  sinuous  path,  by  blazes,  wound 
Among  trunks  grouped  in  myriads  round. 

Here  the  "  u  "  in  "  trunks  "  stands  imbedded  in  nine  consonants, 
four  of  them  moreover  being  mutes ;  thus,  ngtrwnksgr. 

Perhaps  there  is  not  in  the  language  a  finer  example  of  the  alter- 
nation of  liquid  and  rugged  sounds,  than  the  following  lines  from 

Whittier : 

I  love  the  old  melodious  lays 
Which  softly  melt  the  ages  through, 

The  songs  of  Spenser's  golden  days, 

Arcadian  Sidney's  silvery  phrase, 
Sprinkling  our  noon  of  time  with  freshest  morning  dew. 

What  sweeter  English  was  ever  written  than  this  description  of 
the  fall  of  Mulciber?     (Paradise  Lost,  I,  738-746.) 

Nor  was  his  name  unheard  or  unadored 
In  ancient  Greece;  and  in  Ausonian  land 
Men  called  him  Mulciber;  and  how  he  fell 
From  heaven  they  fabled,  thrown  by  angry  Jove 
Sheer  o'er  the  crystal  battlements :  from  morn 
To  noon  he  fell,  from  noon  to  dewy  eve, 
A  summer's  day ;  and  with  the  setting  sun 
Dropped  from  the  zenith  like  a  falling  star, 
On  Lemnos,  the  Aegean  isle. 

2.  The  Accents  at  Convenient  Intervals. 

The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  arranging  the 
words  in  such  a  manner  that  the  accents  come  at  convenient 
and  somewhat  measured  intervals. 

It  is  this  peculiarity  mainly  which  makes  some  prose  writings 
so  much  easier  to  road  than  others.    This  measured  style  is  very 


SENTENCES— HARMONY.  143 

observable  in  Dr.  Johnson.    In  the  following  sentences,  the  accents 
come  at  measured  intervals  with  almost  the  uniformity  of  verse. 

I  shall  not  think  my  employment  useless  or  ignoble,  if,  by  my  assistance, 
foreign  nations  and  distant  ages  gain  access  to  the  propagators  of  knowledge, 
and  understand  the  teachers  of  truth ;  if  my  labors  afford  light  to  the  repos- 
itories of  science,  and  add  celebrity  to  Bacon,  to  Hooker,  to  Milton,  and  to 
Boyle. 

Great  Care  Needed.  —  If  this  style  of  composition  is  continued 
through  a  number  of  periods  in  succession,  it  becomes  monotonous 
and  wearisome.  Nothing,  indeed,  in  the  mere  form  of  expression, 
requires  greater  skill  and  judgment  than  the  proper  alternation  of 
these  nicely  balanced  periods  with  sentences  of  a  different  char- 
acter. Milton's  prose  writings  furnish  some  of  the  finest  examples 
that  oar  literature  affords  of  the  harmonious  and  rhythmical  ar- 
rangement of  words.    Take  the  following  oft-quoted  sentence : 

I  shall  detain  ye  now  no  longer  in  the  demonstration  of  what  we  should  not 
do,  but  straight  conduct  ye  to  a  hillside,  where  I  will  point  ye  out  the  right  path 
of  a  virtuous  and  noble  education  ;  laborious  indeed  at  the  first  ascent,  but  else 
so  smooth,  so  green,  so  full  of  goodly  prospect,  and  melodious  sounds  on  every 
side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not  more  charming. 

If  the  sentence  just  quoted  has  the  softness  and  gentleness  of  an 
iEolian  harp,  others  have  the  majestic  swell  and  sonorousness  of 
some  mighty  organ.  They  are  equally  musical,  though  the  music 
is  of  a  different  kind.     Witness  the  following : 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing  herself  like  a 
strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her  invincible  locks  ;  methinks  I  see  her  as 
an  eagle  mewing  her  mighty  youth,  and  kindling  her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full 
midday  beam;  purging  and  unsealing  her  long-abused  sight  at  the  fountain 
itself  of  heavenly  radiance ;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timorous  and  flocking 
birds,  with  those  also  that  love  the  twilight,  flutter  about,  amazed  at  what  she 
means ! 

Contrast  these  passages  with  the  following  from  Tillotson : 

This  discourse  concerning  the  easiness  of  God's  commands,  does,  all  along, 
suppose  and  acknowledge  the  difficulties  of  the  first  entrance  upon  a  religious 
course ;  except  only  in  those  persons  who  have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained 
up  to  religion  by  the  easy  and  insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and  virtuous  edu- 
cation. 

3.  Cadence  at  the  Close. 

The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  a  due  attention 
to  the  cadence  at  the  close. 


144  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Why  Important.  —  It  is  important  to  leave  upon  the  ear,  at  the 
close  of  a  sentence,  a  sound  hoth  agreeable  in  itself,  and  suited  to 
the  general  impression  which  we  wish  to  make.  The  words  and 
clauses  therefore  should  be  so  marshalled  that  something  pleasing 
and  sonorous  may  come  in  at  the  end. 

The  following  passage  from  "  The  Wife,"  by  Washington  Irving, 
well  illustrates  both  this  rule  and  the  preceding : 

As  the  vine,  which  has  long  twined  its  graceful  foliage  about  the  oak,  and  been 
lifted  by  it  into  sunshine,  will,  when  the  hardy  plant  is  rifted  by  the  thunder- 
bolt, cling  round  it  with  its  caressing  tendrils,  and  bind  up  its  shattered  boughs ; 
so  is  it  beautifully  ordered  by  Providence,  that  woman,  who  is  the  mere  depend- 
ant and  ornament  of  man  in  his  happier  hours,  should  be  his  stay  and  solace 
when  smitten  with  sudden  calamity ;  winding  herself  into  the  rugged  recesses 
of  his  nature,  tenderly  supporting  the  drooping  head,  and  binding  up  the  broken 
heart. 

In  this  long  sentence,  the  pauses  or  rests  are  so  adjusted  that  the 
voice  passes  with  entire  ease  from  point  to  point,  while  in  the  last 
line  the  whole  construction  is  brought  to  a  most  graceful  and  pleas- 
ing conclusion. 

Small  Unaccented  Words  at  the  End.  —  Any  marked  falling  off  in 
sonorousness  at  the  end  is  displeasing  to  the  ear.  For  this  reason, 
we  should  avoid  closing  a  sentence  with  a  small  unaccented  word. 
Such  a  termination  is  injurious  to  harmony  as  well  as  to  strength. 

"  It  is  a  mystery  which  we  firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore  the 
depth  of."  Change  it  thus :  "  It  is  a  mystery,  the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  be- 
lieve, and  the  depth  of  which  we  humbly  adore." 

An  Accent  Needed  near  the  End.  —  It  seems  to  hold  in  general,  in 
our  language,  that,  in  order  to  a  musical  close,  either  the  last  syl- 
lable, or  the  last  but  one,  should  have  the  accent.  Hence  words 
which  have  the  accent  far  removed  from  the  end,  such  as  c6ntrary, 
auditory,  pe'remptorily,  etc.,  are,  so  far  as  the  music  is  concerned, 
unsuited  for  the  close  of  a  sentence.  To  say,  "  The  order  was  given 
peremptorily,"  does  not  end  as  agreeably  to  the  ear  as  to  say,  u  The 
order  was  given  in  a  peremptory  manner." 

4.  Adapting  the  Sound  to  the  Sense. 

The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  adapting  the 
sound  to  the  sense. 

Character  of  this  Harmony.  —  The   Harmony  which  arises  from 


SENTENCES— HARMONY.  145 

this  source  is  of  a  much  higher  kind  than  that  which  arises  from 
mere  pleasantness  of  sound.  This  higher  kind  of  harmony  may 
exist  where  there  are  sounds  which  in  themselves  are  harsh  and 
grating.  This  very  ruggedness  of  sound  may  in  some  cases  be  a 
part  of  the  harmony.  The  author  may  desire  to  convey  the  idea  of 
something  disagreeable  and  horrid,  in  which  case  the  harshness  of 
the  words  is  in  perfect  consonance  with  the  thought,  and  helps  the 
effect.  The  opening  of  Hell  gates,  in  Paradise  Lost,  is  often  quoted 
in  illustration  of  this  point. 

On  a  sudden  open  fly 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder,  that  the  lowest  bottom  shook 
Of  Erebus. 

Greater  Variety  Admissible.  —  In  seeking,  therefore,  that  kind  of 
harmony  which  consists  in  adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense,  a  great 
variety  of  words  is  admissible.  For  grave  and  serious  ideas  we 
naturally  use  words  whose  sounds  are  slow  and  measured.  Stern 
and  impetuous  thoughts  are  expressed  by  words  which  are  harsh 
and  discordant.  Gentle  and  benignant  feelings,  on  the  other  hand, 
require  soft  and  flowing  words.  By  selecting  words  of  different 
sounds,  a  writer  may  indicate  many  varieties  of  motion,  as  swift  or 
slow,  easy  or  difficult,  and  may  even  imitate  particular  noises,  as 
when  we  speak  of  the  hum  of  the  bee,  the  hiss  of  the  serpent,  the 
whistling  of  the  wind,  the  crash  of  the  falling  tree. 

Notice  how  huge  size  and  unwieldiness  are  expressed  by  the 
choice  of  words  in  the  following  passages  from  Milton : 

Part,  huge  of  bulk, 
Wallowing,  unwieldy,  enormous  in  their  gait, 
Tempest  the  ocean. 

Scarce  from  his  mould 
Behemoth,  biggest  born  of  earth,  upheaved 
His  vastness. 

The  labor  of  Sisyphus  is  aptly  imitated  by  Pope  in  the  following 
lines,  particularly  in  the  last : 

With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan, 
Up  the  high  Mil  he  fteaves  a  Mige  round  stone. 

The  imitation  here  is  rendered  more  effective  by  the  artifice  of 
the  continued  repetition  of  the  aspirate. 
13  K 


146  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

The  felling  of  timber  is  thus  described,  in  words  whose  sound  is 
clearly  an  echo  of  the  sense : 

Deep-echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown, 

Then  rustling,  crackling,  crashing,  thunder  down. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  harmony  produced  by 
the  adaptation  of  the  sound  to  the  sense,  is  Poe's  well-known  poem 
of  the  "Bells."  The  poem  is  too  familiar  to  need  quotation.  Ten- 
nyson's "  Bugle  Song  "  is  another  exquisite  instance. 

Apart  from  the  mere  sound  of  the  words,  an  imitative  harmony 
may  be  produced  in  poetry  by  the  rhythm.  Thus  the  galloping  of 
a  horse  is  imitated  in  the  following : 

At  each  bound  he  could  feel  his  scabbard  of  steel 
Smiting  his  stallion's  flanks.— Longfellow. 

A  charge  of  cavalry  is  imitated  in  the  following : 

Forward!  break  cover! 

Ride  through  them !  ride  over 

Them!  baptize  the  clover, 

With  blood  as  with  dew!—  Boker. 

Part  of  the  effect  of  haste  in  the  last  passage  is  produced  by 
what  musicians  call  the  slur  between  "over"  and  "  them,"  and  be- 
tween "clover"  and  "with." 

Almost  every  variety  of  warlike  sound  is  imitated  in  these  lines : 

Hark  to  the  brazen  blare  of  the  bugle! 

Hark  to  the  rattling  clatter  of  the  drums, 

The  measured  tread  of  the  steel-clad  footmen! 

Hark  to  the  laboring  horses'  breath, 

Painfully  tugging  the  harnessed  cannon; 

The  shrill,  sharp  clink  of  the  warriors'  swords, 

As  their  chargers  bound  when  the  trumpets  sound 

Their  alarums  through  the  echoing  mountains !  —Boker. 

How  very  different  the  following : 

And  far  below  the  Roundheads  rode, 
And  hummed  a  surly  hymn.— Tennyson. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  on  the  Construction  of 
Sentences. 

[Point  out  whatever  is  faulty  in  any  of  these  sentences,  and  reconstruct  the 
sentences  so  as  to  avoid  the  fault] 

1.  In  nature,  the  foundation  of  order  is  the  plan  to  which  every- 
thing conforms,  and  all  in  perfect  harmony. 


SENTENCES— MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES.     147 

2.  He  is  a  benefactor  who  from  scattered  fragments  constructs  a 
work,  clear  in  outline,  and  symmetrical,  to  endure  through  the  ages. 

3.  Poverty  habitually  comes  in  like  an  armed  man,  and  misery  and 
want  uaalleviateil,  ««d  sometimes  ajaparently  unperceived,  rule  with 
absolute  dominion  in  the  place. 

4.  A  man  very  much  under  the  influence  of  liquor,  with  a  pair 
of  shad,  was  making  his  way  under  difficulties  to  the  depot,  on 
Saturday. 

5.  To  this  accomplished  and  unfortunate  lady,  Anne  Boleyn,  whose 
beauty  attracted  the  fatal  notice,  but  could  not  fix  the  brutal  passion 
of  the  king,  who  "  spared  neither  man  in  his  wrath  nor  woman  in 
his  lust,"  is  sometimes  ascribed  the  following  touching  poem,  though 
neither  Mr.  Walton  nor  Mr.  Ritson  think  justly. 

6.  This  beautiful  and  highly  accomplished  woman,  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  whose  feminine  character  ill  fitted  her  for  the  throne  of  a 
rude  nation  in  the  most  agitated  period  of  its  history,  afitHrho  had 
the  misfortune  to  live  among  enemies  paid  to  slander  her,  while  none 
dared  to  defend  her  against  a  haughty  powerful  rival,  that  united 
to  a  woman's  jealousy  of  her  superior  claims,  the  sternest  policies 
of  unscrupulous  ambition,  is  now  seldom  named  without  melancholy 
interest,  and  a  wish  to  forget  her  faults  in  the  trials  of  her  circum- 
stances. 

7.  The  French  being  her  tongue  from  infancy,  she  preferred  to 
write  in  it;  and,  though  not  strictly  within  the  plan  of  our  work, 
we  subjoin  a  copy  of  verses  written  during  her  imprisonment  in 
Fotheringay  Castle,  with  a  Latin  hymn,  the  musical  cadence  of 
which  has  been  greatly  admired,  "  composed  and  repeated  "  by  her 
the  day  before  the  execution. 

8.  She  added  to  unusual  learning  much  talent  as  a  painter,  and 
according  to  her  admiring  contemporaries,  as  a  poetical  writer. 

9.  She  wrote,  among  other  poems,  a  spirited  defence  of  her  sex, 
in  answer  to  Pope's  Characters  of  Women,  which  Duncombe  praises 
in  his  Feminead. 

10.  She  was  fond,  however,  of  literary  society,  as  is  shown  by  her 
friendship  for  Mrs.  Rowe  (she  was  the  authoress  of  the  letter  signed 
Cleora  in  Mrs.  R.'s  collection) ;  Thomson,  whom  she  kindly  patron- 
ized (who  dedicated  to  her  the  first  edition  of  his  Spring) ;  Dr. 
Watts  (who  dedicated  to  her  his  Miscellaneous  Thoughts  in  Prose 
and  Verse) ;  and  Shenstone  (who  addressed  to  her  his  Ode  on  Rural 
Elegance). 


148  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

11.  Mrs.  Greville  (whose  maiden  name  was  Fanny  McCartney), 
wife  of  Fulke  Greville,  author  of  Maxims,  Characters,  etc.,  1756, 
wrote,  about  1753,  her  Prayer  for  Indifference,  which  was  very 
popular,  and  provoked  several  clever  replies,  the  best  being  by  the 

Countess  of  C ,  supposed  to  be  Isabella,  Countess  of  Carlisle, 

who  died  1793. 

12.  Mrs.  Crewe  was  the  daughter  of  Mrs.  Greville ;  and  her  sec- 
ond son,  Captain  William  Fulke  Greville,  died  at  Dover  in  1837, 
aged  87,  from  which  we  infer  that  her  marriage  was  antecedent  to 
1749. 

13.  She  went  upon  the  stage,  for  which  she  had  long  before  an 
inclination,  to  gain  a  support. 

14.  Piozzi  died  in  1809,  but  in  1819-20  his  sprightly  widow 
showed,  not  only  that  her  physical  elasticity  was  preserved,  by 
dancing  with  great  spirit  at  public  balls,  but  that  her  sensibilities 
were  yet  warm,  by  falling  in  love  with  Conway,  the  handsome 
actor. 

15.  In  1776,  she  printed  Sir  Eldred  of  the  Bower,  a  ballad,  and  a 
little  poem,  in  imitation  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  on  a  rock  in 
Somersetshire,  from  which  issues  a  red  stream,  called  The  Bleeding 
Rock,  which  had  been  written  some  years  before. 

16.  This  well-known  lady,  the  widow  of  a  Presbyterian  clergyman 
of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland,  whose  Letters  from  the  Mountains 
have  been  so  generally  and  universally  admired,  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1801,  which  shows  the  same  talents  that  made  her 
descriptions  of  scenery  so  graphicand  delightful. 

17.  The  editor  has  far  greater  pleasure  in  speaking  of  her  writings, 
as  they  struck  his  youthful  fancy,  than  with  the  cool  judgment  of 
more  mature  years. 

18.  Bereaved  by  death  of  one  to  whom  her  heart  was  given,  she 
became  in  an  unpropitious  hour  the  wife  of  the  Hon.  George  Chap- 
pel  Norton,  who  proved  himself  utterly  unworthy  of  having  com- 
mitted to  him  the  child  of  beauty,  genius,  and  generous  feeling, 
whom  he  has  persecuted  with  the  basest  accusations  and  untiring 
malignity. 

19.  We  may  recur  to  an  earlier  period,  when  the  crown  was  de- 
visable by  will  in  England,  or  when  at  least  the  succession  was  set- 
tlid  in  accordance  with  the  desires  of  a  dying  sovereign,  for  some 
kind  of  parulKl. 

20.  He  is  a  public  benefactor  who  from  scattered  fragments  con- 


SENTENCES— MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES.     149 

structs  a  work  clear  in  outline  and  symmetrical,  to  endure  through 
ages. 

21.  Rich  or  poor^you  have  always  been  to  me  a  true  friend. 

22.  Is  it  nothing  to  be  obliged  to  toil  almost  in  the  menial  con- 
cerns of  his  wretched  habitation  ? 

23.  My  confidence  in  the  people  governing  is  unlimited ;  my  con- 
fidence in  the  people  governed  is  infinitesimal. 

24.  Everybody  when  they  buy  want  the  best. 

25.  I  am  sure  there  was  a  case  in  the  day  before  yesterday's 
paper,  extracted  from  one  of  the  French  newspapers,  about  a  jour- 
neyman shoemaker  who  was  jealous  of  a  young  girl  in  an  adjoining 
village,  because  she  would  not  shut  herself  up  in  an  air-tight  three- 
pair  of  stairs,  and  charcoal  herself  to  death  with  him ;  and  who 
went  and  hid  himself  in  a  wood  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife ;  and 
rushed  out  as  she  passed  by  with  a  few  friends,  and  killed  himself 
first,  and  then  all  the  friends,  and  then  her  —  no,  killed  all  the 
friends  first,  and  then  herself,  and  then  himself —  which  was  quite 
frightful  to  think  of. 

26.  Such  a  man  should  not  be  tolerated  in  office,  for  one  who 
receives  bribes  for  the  administration  of  justice  can  hardly  be 
thought  at  all  times  to  keep  in  mind  what  justice  means,  nor  one 
who  winks  at  wrong-doing  to  be  free  from  all  taint  of  misdemeanor 
himself. 

27.  Owing  to  an  obstacle  on  the  track,  and  the  badness  of  the 
weather,  the  train  was  delayed,  and  as  John  did  not  reach  home  in 
time  to  attend  the  funeral,  they  concluded  to  postpone  it. 

28.  My  son  John  rode  down  to  Colchester,  mounted  upon  the  old 
bay  horse.  Shying  at  a  white  gate,  he  stumbled  and  cast  a  shoe, 
and  John  was  detained  an  hour  at  the  smithy. 

29.  The  English  hate  frogs,  but  the  French  love  frogs  and  hate 
the  English,  and  cut  off  their  hind  legs  and  consider  them  a  great 
delicacy. 

30.  John  Brown,  his  wife,  baby,  and  dog,  came  up  to  town  to  see 
the  fair,  and  passing  through  the  streets  he  amused  himself  by  bark- 
ing at  every  unprotected  female  he  met. 

31.  The  moon  is  situated  about  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
miles  from  the  earth,  and  is  supposed  to  be  an  opaque  body  shining 
only  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays  passing  from  the  sun,  and  it  influ- 
ences the  waters  of  the  earth  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  tidal 
wave  once  in  24  hours. 

13* 


150  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

32.  A  man  walked  down  the  street,  followed  by  a  little  dog, 
sporting  a  green  neck-tie  and  patent  leather  boots. 

33.  He  came  into  church  with  his  wife,  wearing  a  full  dress 
uniform  of  the  cavalry  regiment  then  stationed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

34.  The  man  who  sat  writing  with  a  Roman  nose  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  room. 

35.  The  old  astronomers  were  free  to  invent  whatever  theories 
they  pleased  as  to  the  scale  on  which  the  sidereal  scheme  is  con- 
structed, since  if  the  earth  were  at  rest  we  could  never  know  how 
far  the  stars  were  from  us,  and  it  was  only  when  the  earth  was  set 
free  by  Copernicus  from  the  imaginary  chain  which  had  been  con- 
ceived as  holding  it  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  that  it  became 
possible  to  form  any  conception  of  the  distances  at  which  the  stars 
lie  from  us. 

36.  By  reason  of  the  traces  of  the  awful  earthquake  of  1812, 
which  did  its  work  with  suddenness,  almost  as  appalling  as  that 
which  destroyed  Manilla,  the  environs  of  the  capital  are  sadly 
interesting. 

37.  Well,  sir,  I  (who  am  a  very  quiet,  and,  I  believe,  inoffensive 
man,  whose  only  wish  in  life  is  to  be  allowed  to  sit  in  a  corner,  out 
of  other  people's  way,  and  read  books,)  I  had  occasion  to  drive 
across  Hyde  Park  on  the  afternoon  of  Tuesday,  the  day  after  the 
storm,  in  company  with  my  wife,  who,  as  is  her  wont,  was  giving 
me,  who  am  somewhat  infirm  of  foot,  the  benefit  of  a  lift  to  my 
club  —  a  literary  club,  as  harmless  and  colorless  as  myself,  and 
when  fairly  in  the  park  I  found  that,  though  the  great  storm  was 
over,  the  waves  were  very  far  from  gone  down:  angry  little  surface- 
waves,  different  enough  from  the  grand  natural  heaving  of  the  true 
popular  sea. 

38.  By  the  time  I  had  taken  five  bottles,  I  found  myself  com- 
pletely cured,  after  having  been  brought  so  near  to  the  gate  of 
death,  by  means  of  your  invaluable  medicine. 

39.  An  extensive  view  is  presented  from  the  fourth  story  of  the 
Delaware  River. 

40.  His  remains  were  committed  to  that  bourne  whence  no  travel- 
ler returns,  attended  by  his  family. 

41.  If  the  gentleman  who  keeps  a  store  in  Cedar  Street,  with  a 
r«  il  bead,  will  return  the  umbrella  he  borrowed  from  a  lady,  with 
an  ivory  handle,  he  will  hear  of  something  to  his  advantage. 


SENTENCES— MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES.     151 

42.  Wanted  a  groom  to  take  charge  of  two  horses  of  a  serious 
turn  of  mind. 

43.  He  walked  toward  the  table  and  took  up  his  hat  and  bade 
adieu  to  his  host  and  took  his  departure. 

44.  As  I  was  on  the  express  train,  I  watched  the  conductor  pass- 
ing through  the  cars,  collecting  the  tickets  from  the  way  passengers, 
and  punching  the  through  ones. 

45.  All  persons  must  detest  traitors  who  possess  any  love  of  coun 
try  whatever. 

46.  John  is  the  best  boy  in  the  village  that  attends  the  academy. 

47.  The  books  treat  of  trees  that  are  on  the  fourth  shelf. 

48.  Her  apron  was  torn  by  a  little  dog,  that  was  trimmed  with 
pink  and  white  braid. 

49.  William  Penn  gave  this  advice  to  his  children :  Let  your  in- 
dustry and  parsimony  go  no  further  than  for  a  sufficiency  for  life, 
and  to  make  a  provision  for  your  children,  and  that  in  moderation, 
if  the  Lord  gives  you  any. 

50.  Why,  our  cook  (she 's  fifty,  if  she 's  a  day)  got  a  bonnet  just 
like  mine,  (the  materials  were  cheaper,  but  the  effect  was  the  same,) 
and  had  the  impertinence  (servants  have  no  idea  of  their  place  in 
this  country)  to  wear  it  before  my  face. 

51.  If  some  men,  according  to  the  fashionable  metaphor,  are 
square,  while  others  are  round,  the  Eight  Hon.  Robert  Lowe  must 
be  described  as  multangular,  with  whom  it  is  not  easy  to  live  com- 
fortably and  at  peace. 

52.  Mrs.  Ingram,  a  most  estimable  lady,  widow  of  the  late  pro- 
prietor, who  was  a  member  from  Boston,  and  died  last  year,  is  the 
sole  owner  of  the  Illustrated  London  News. 

53.  It  was  midnight — the  very  hour  at  which  (with  a  punctuality 
few  of  them  have  exhibited  in  the  flesh)  spirits  invariably  revisit 
(what  can  be  the  attraction  in  many  cases  ?)  their  former  abodes. 

54.  The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

55.  Not  only  did  he  find  her  busy,  but  pleased  and  happy  ever. 

56.  I  have  done  that  which  I  have  spoken  to  thee  of. 

57.  Poverty  wants  some  things;  the  avaricious  want  all  things. 

58.  The  public  is  interested  in  knowing  who  is  the  rascal,  as  he 
charges,  who  is  drawing  thousands  of  dollars  in  sinecures  from  the 
public  purse. 

59.  I  move  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  report  what  al- 
terations are  necessary  to  the  next  General  Assembly. 


152  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

60.  They  expect  the  overthrow  of  all  the  old  traditions  of  a  race, 
whose  religion,  customs,  and  laws  run  from  time  immemorial,  in 
the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 

61.  Edward  I.  had  in  his  youth  rescued  the  crown  from  the  pre- 
sumptuous Leicester,  and  had  replaced  it  upon  the  head  of  his  weak 
but  well-meaning  father. 

62.  When  young  Henry  was  eleven  years  of  age,  in  the  year  he- 
fore  the  revolution  which  brought  his  father  to  the  throne,  Beau- 
fort, who  had  been  made  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford, 
took  him  under  his  care  at  Queen's  College. 

63.  Although  the  king  treated  his  kinsman  with  much  courtesy, 
he  evidently  regarded  him  as  a  pledge  of  safety. 

64.  Henry  was  conveyed  by  the  king's  order  to  the  castle  of 
Tryon,  where  he  and  his  cousin,  young  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester, were  put  in  easy  confinement. 

65.  He  was  shocked  that  one  who  had  in  every  way  sought  his 
love  by  gentle  kindness,  should  be  deprived  of  power  and  liberty  by 
his  own  nearest  kinsman. 

66.  Yet  it  was  natural  for  him  to  conceal  whatever  sadness  he 
might  entertain  on  account  of  the  misfortune  of  his  friend,  in  the 
brilliant  scenes  of  which  he  was  the  principal  actor. 

67.  His  presence  in  company  with  the  new  king,  gave  additional 
eclat  to  the  usurpation ;  for  he  was  looked  upon  as  innocent  of  the 
stain,  and  his  youth  and  beauty  elicited  the  enthusiasm  of  the  popu- 
lace, who  were  now  to  regard  him  as  their  future  monarch. 

68.  Both  body  and  mind  were  patient  under  hardships,  whether 
voluntary  or  under  necessity  endured. 

69.  He  was  impatient,  in  the  generosity  of  his  nature,  of  that 
praise  which  sought  him  out  in  injustice  of  those  who  had  really 
triumphed. 

70.  No  man  went  from  his  presence  with  anger  in  his  breast. 

71.  The  intimacy  of  a  prince  of  the  blood  royal  with  common 
persons  would  be  noticed  enough  to  build  such  traditions  upon,  and 
we  may  be  sure,  that  had  Henry  really  been  guilty  of  drunkenness, 
burglary,  and  carousing,  we  should  have  had  the  fact  duly  authen- 
ticated by  the  gossiping  chroniclers  of  the  day. 

72.  Owen  himself  seems  to  have  in  a  manner  retired  from  the 
command,  and  to  have  delegated  his  authority  to  a  brave  lieutenant, 
Rees  ap  Griffith,  who  was  not,  however,  inclined  to  resume  that  rash 
mode  of  warfare  which  had  made  Owen  so  famed  a  leader. 


SENTENCES— MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES.     153 

73.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  of  that,  perhaps  of  any 
age,  appeared  to  annoy  Henry  the  Fourth,  from  this  time  almost  to 
the  day  of  his  death.  A  rebellion  headed  by  him,  took  its  rise,  to 
keep  which  in  abeyance  drained  the  resources  of  England,  and 
which  at  times  absolutely  threatened  the  integrity  of  the  throne. 

74.  The  king  grew  prematurely  old  under  the  unusual  weight  of 
his  cares,  and  the  anxieties  which  would  naturally  depress  one  who 
held  his  crown  by  an  uncertain  tenure. 

75.  Chivalry  thus  illustrated  its  most  stately  adornments,  and  the 
barbarities  of  which  its  concomitants  almost  compel  admiration. 

76.  Thus  Pedro  threw  away  the  very  friendship  without  which 
he  would  still  have  been  an  exile,  the  alienation  of  which  left  him 
exposed  without  defence  to  that  resistless  home  party,  which  still 
clung  to  his  brother  Henry. 

77.  An  opportunity  very  soon  presented  itself,  and  we  arrive  at 
that  romantic  episode  in  the  history  of  those  times,  in  which  were 
cast  the  obtrusive  events  of  John  of  Gaunt's  career,  and  which  have 
been  most  efficacious  to  preserve  his  name  and  deeds  to  later  gen- 
erations. 

78.  Hume  says  that  John  of  Gaunt  was  not  even  enterprising; 
but  he  must  mean  that  he  was  not  ambitious  of  the  crown,  nor  of 
the  direction  of  the  government ;  for  his  life  was  one  of  almost 
ceaseless  activity. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIGURES. 

Relation  of  the  Subject  to  those  which  Precede.  —  In  the  expression 
of  thought,  it  is  the  business  of  the  writer  or  the  speaker,  first  to 
obtain  the  words  needed,  and  then  to  arrange  them  into  completed 
expressions.  These  two  points  have  been  already  discussed  in  the 
chapters  on  Diction  and  Sentences.  Words  are  the  brick  and  mortar, 
sentences  are  the  finished  walls,  of  the  mental  fabric.  But  Rhetoric, 
no  less  than  architecture,  needs  something  more  than  bare  walls.  It 
has,  equally  with  the  sister  art,  its  arabesques  and  mosaics,  its  arches 
and  columns,  its  lights  and  shadows,  its  curious  tracery,  its  lines  of 
grace  and  beauty,  —  its  appeal,  in  short,  to  the  taste  and  the  imagi- 
nation, as  well  as  to  the  understanding.  "We  wish,  in  other  words,  not 
only  to  express  our  meaning,  but  to  express  it  in  forms  which  will 
make  it  more  agreeable  and  attractive.  In  natural  order,  therefore, 
the  next  subject  in  Rhetoric,  after  Diction  and  Sentences,  is  the 
discussion  of  the  various  means  by  which  we  add  to  discourse  graces 
and  attractions  beyond  those  derived  from  the  bare  expression  of 
thought.  Among  these  means  none  are  more  conspicuous  than  those 
known  as  Figures.  To  these,  therefore,  we  shall  now  address  our- 
selves. 

Definition  of  Figure.  —  A  Figure,  in  Rhetoric,  is  some  de- 
viation from  the  plain  and  ordinary  mode  of  expression,  with 
a  view  of  making  the  meaning  more  effective. 

An  Example.— If  it  is  said,  "A  good  man  enjoys  comfort  in  the  midst  of  ad- 
versity," the  thought  is  expressed  in  the  simplest  manner  possible.  But  if  we 
say,  "To  the  upright  there  ariseth  light  in  darkness,"  the  same  sentiment  is 
expressed  in  a  figurative  style.  There  is  a  deviation  from  the  plain  and  simple 
expression.  Light  is  put  in  place  of  comfort,  darkness  in  place  of  adversity,  and 
this  change  in  the  mode  of  expression  makes  the  idea  more  vivid. 

154 


FIGURES.  155 

Another  Example.— To  say,  "It  is  impossible  to  explore  the  Divine  nature 
fully  by  any  search  we  can  make,"  is  to  utter  a  simple  proposition.  But  when 
we  say,  "Canst  thou,  by  searching,  find  out  God?  Canst  thou  find  out  the  Al- 
mighty to  perfection?  It  is  high  as  heaven,  what  canst  thou  do?  deeper  than 
hell,  what  canst  thou  know  ?"  we  introduce  a  figure.  Not  only  the  proposition 
is  expressed,  but  admiration  and  astonishment  are  expressed  with  it,  and  the 
meaning  is  made  in  every  way  more  effective. 

Another  Example.  —  If  we  say,  "  That  is  strange,"  we  use  the  plain,  ordi- 
nary mode  of  stating  a  fact.  But  if  we  say,  "  How  strange  that  is  ! "  the  expres- 
sion is  changed  from  a  mere  assertion  to  an  exclamation  of  surprise.  It  is  there- 
fore a  figure,  a  form  of  speech  different  from  the  ordinary  mode  of  expression. 

An  Example  of  a  IHfferent  Kind.  —  In  the  phrase,  "  Now  is  the  winter  of 
our  discontent,"  there  is  a  figure,  but  it  is  of  another  kind.  The  form  of  the  ex- 
pression is  not  changed,  but  one  of  the  words,  "  winter,"  is  turned  from  its  literal 
meaning,  a  season  of  the  year,  and  is  made  to  signify  a  condition  of  the  human 
feelings.  This  changing  or  turning  away  of  a  word  from  its  literal  meaning  is 
called  a  Trope,  from  the  Greek  word  tropos  (rpoTros),  which  means  a  turning. 

Figures  and  Tropes. —  The  ancients  observed  carefully  the 
distinction  between  Figures  and  Tropes.  But  at  present  the 
one  term,  Figure,  is  used  to  cover  the  whole  subject,  and  to 
mean  any  deviation  from  the  plain  and  ordinary  mode  of 
expression,  whether  in  the  form  of  the  sentence,  or  in  the 
meaning  of  a  particular  word. 

Figures  not  Unnatural.— Though  Figures  are  thus  some  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  mode  of  expression,  it  does  not  follow  that  they 
are  forced  or  unnatural.  Figures  are  not  the  inventions  of  rhetori- 
cians, any  more  than  the  laws  of  language  are  the  inventions  of 
grammarians.  As  writers  on  grammar  have  observed  how  men 
speak,  and  from  this  have  drawn  the  rules  of  speech,  so  writers  on 
rhetoric  have  noticed  how  men  depart  from  the  plain  and  ordinary 
mode  of  expression  when  they  wish  to  give  special  force  or  vivid- 
ness to  their  meaning,  and  from  this  fact  the  character  and  rules  for 
such  figurative  expressions  have  been  derived.  The  most  illiterate 
men,  as  well  as  the  most  learned,  speak  in  figures.  No  races,  in 
fact,  are  so  much  addicted  to  the  use  of  figurative  language  as  the 
semi-barbarous  and  the  savage.  Whenever  the  imaginations  of  the 
multitude  are  awakened,  or  their  passions  inflamed,  they  pour  forth 
their  feelings  in  a  torrent  of  figures.  It  is  rare,  indeed,  that  any 
one,  learned  or  unlearned,  civilized  or  savage,  in  a  composed  or  in 
an  excited  state  of  mind,  discourses  for  any  length  of  time  without 
the  use  of  figures.     Figurative  expressions  are  as  important  to  the 


156  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

agreeableness  of  discourse  as  are  color  and  form  to  that  of  the  land- 
scape. 

Origin  of  Figures. — The  first  source  of  figures  is  the  bar- 
renness of  language. 

Explanation.  —  In  the  first  attempts  to  use  language,  men  would 
begin  with  giving  names  to  the  different  objects  with  which  they 
became  acquainted.  As  the  ideas  of  men  multiplied,  their  stock  of 
names  and  words  would  be  enlarged.  But  for  this  infinite  variety 
of  ideas  and  objects  in  the  world,  no  language  would  be  adequate. 
Any  language  would  become  unmanageable  which  should  undertake 
to  supply  a  separate  word  for  every  separate  idea.  Men  therefore 
would  seek  to  abridge  the  labor  of  inventing  and  remembering  such 
an  infinite  number  of  words.  One  word,  which  had  been  invented 
to  express  some  particular  idea  or  object,  would  be  used  to  express 
some  other  idea  or  object  to  which  it  was  imagined  to  bear  a  like- 


JExample.— The  word  dull  in  its  primary  meaning  applies  to  an  instrument 
having  an  edge.  But  when  we  speak  of  an  essay  as  being  "  dull,"  We  imagine 
the  mental  effect  of  such  a  composition  to  be  similar  to  the  material  effect  of  an 
edged  tool  that  is  dull.  So,  instead  of  making  a  new  word,  we  use  the  old  word 
in  a  new  and  changed  sense.  This  change  is  called  a  figure.  A  dull  knife  is 
literal.  A  dull  essay  is  figurative.  In  this  manner  a  large  number  of  figurative 
uses  of  words  have  arisen.  Mental  operations  especially  are  most  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  words  derived  from  sensible  objects.  Thus  we  speak  of  a  piercing 
judgment,  a  clear  head,  a  soft  heart;  of  one  inflamed  by  anger,  warmed  by  love, 
swelled  with  pride,  melted  with  pity,  and  so  on. 

Second  Source. — The  other  and  indeed  the  principal  source 
of  figures  is  the  pleasure  which  they  give. 

Explanation.—  In  this  case  we  use  figures,  not  because  of  the  bar- 
renness of  language,  but  because  the  figurative  expression  is  more 
agreeable  than  the  literal  one.  We  have  words  already  at  our  com- 
mand for  expressing  the  plain,  simple  meaning;  but  we  are  more 
pleased  with  some  other  expression  which,  besides  the  primary  and 
literal  meaning,  conveys  some  additional  idea  of  an  agreeable  char- 
acter. 

/',><» mples.—  Thus  the  sun  becomes  "the  powerful  king  of  day."  youth  is 
called  "  the  morning  of  life,"  "  gray  hairs  "  means  old  age,  the  " sceptre  "  means 
the  royal  authority,  and  so  on. 


FIGURES— SIMILE.  157 

Names  of  the  Figures. — The  most  common  figures  are 
Simile,  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Antithesis,  Epigram,  Metonymy, 
Synecdoche,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Apostrophe,  Person- 
ification, Hyperbole,  Irony. 

I.  SIMILE. 

Simile,  or  Comparison,  consists  in  formally  likening  one 

thing  to  another. 

Examples.—  The  condemnation  of  Socrates  took  him  away  in  his  full  gran- 
deur and  glory,  like  the  setting  of  a  tropical  sun. 

True  ease  in  writing  comes  from  art,  not  chance, 
As  those  move  easiest  who  have  learnt  to  dance. 

I  have  ventured, 
Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders, 
This  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory. 

Why  Similes  Please. —  Similes  are  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  mind 
on  several  accounts : 

1.  First,  we  are  so  constituted  that  we  naturally  are  pleased  in 
comparing  objects  with  one  another,  and  tracing  the  points  of  like- 
ness or  of  unlikeness  between  them.  This  habit  of  comparison  is 
common  to  all  persons.  Even  children  take  delight  in  it,  as  soon  as 
they  are  capable  of  taking  distinct  notice  of  objects.  The  mere  fact 
of  there  being  a  likeness  gives,  when  observed,  a  pleasure  to  the  mind. 

2.  Secondly,  a  simile  usually  makes  the  principal  object  plainer, 
or  gives  it  a  stronger  impression  on  the  mind,  and  on  this  account 
is  a  source  of  additional  pleasure.  An  author,  wishing  to  say  that 
the  memory  of  a  certain  person  is  both  quick  and  retentive,  makes 
the  idea  clearer  and  more  forcible,  and  at  the  same  time  more 
agreeable  to  the  reader,  by  expressing  the  thought  thus:  "His 
memory  is  like  wax  to  receive  impressions,  and  like  marble  to  re- 
tain them." 

3.  Thirdly,  by  a  skilful  use  of  simile,  the  principal  object  may  be 
embellished  and  made  more  agreeable  by  being  associated  with 
something  of  a  superior  character  —  something  splendid,  graceful, 
refined,  dignified,  or  grand,  according  to  the  occasion.  Shakespeare 
says  of  a  certain  strain  of  music : 

...  It  came  o'er  my  ear  like  the  sweet  sound 
That  breathes  upon  a  bank  of  violets, 
Stealing  and  giving  odor. 
14 


158  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

Every  one  feels,  on  reading  snch  a  comparison,  that  the  image 
with  which  soft  music  is  thus  associated  has  given  it  an  additional 
embellishment  and  charm. 

Burlesque.  —  Similes  are  not  always  used  to  dignify  and  elevate  an  object. 
The  aim  of  the  writer  may  be,  as  in  burlesque,  to  make  a  thing  seem  mean  by 
comparing  it  to  something  low  and  degrading.    Thus  Butler  says  of  Hudibras : 

.  .  .  'Tis  known  he  could  speak  Greek 
As  naturally  as  pigs  squeak ; 
[And]  Latin  was  no  more  difficile 
Than  to  a  blackbird  'tis  to  whistle. 

Thus  also  he  burlesques  morning : 

The  sun  had  long  since,  in  the  lap 
Of  Thetis,  taken  out  his  nap ; 
And,  like  a  lobster  boiled,  the  morn 
From  black  to  red  began  to  turn. 

The  Object  of  Simile  is  to  increase  the  effect  intended  in 
the  main  assertion,  whether  that  intention  be  to  exalt  or  to 
degrade,  to  dignify  or  to  burlesque. 

Likeness  of  Effect.  —  Though  the  essence  of  a  simile  consists  in 
likeness,  yet  the  likeness  is  not  necessarily  of  a  material  kind.  One 
thing  may  be  like  another,  not  because  they  look  alike,  or  sound 
alike,  or  have  any  material  qualities  in  common,  but  because  they 
produce  similar  effects  upon  the  mind.  They  raise  similar  trains  of 
thought  or  feeling,  or  the  remembrance  of  one  strengthens  in  some 
way  the  impression  produced  by  the  other.  This  kind  of  subtle 
likeness  often  has  a  more  pleasing  effect  than  one  which  is  more 
obvious  to  the  senses. 

Example  from  Ossian.  —  A  certain  simile  of  Ossian's  has  been  much  ad- 
mired on  this  account.  Of  a  particular  strain  of  music,  he  says,  it  was  "  like  the 
memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  pleasant  and  mournful  to  the  soul."  The  effect 
here  is  much  finer  than  if  he  had  compared  the  music  to  the  song  of  the  nightin- 
gale, or  the  murmur  of  a  stream,  although  in  the  latter  cases  there  would  have 
been  more  of  actual  likeness. 

Mere  Likeness  does  not  of  itself  constitute  a  simile.  There  is  no 
simile,  in  the  rhetorical  sense  of  that  word,  when  one  city  is  com- 
pared to  another  city,  one  house  to  another  house,  one  man  to  an- 
other man,  Napoleon  to  Caesar,  Rothschild  to  Croesus.  In  order 
that  there  may  be  a  legitimate  simile,  the  objects  compared  must  be 
of  a  different  kind. 


FIGURES— SIMILE.  159 

Examples.  —  A  city  in  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  may  be  likened  to  Jonah's 
gourd.  Milton,  describing  the  sudden  erection  of  the  huge  fabric  in  Pande- 
monium, says,  it  "  rose  like  an  exhalation."  A  great  warrior  may  be  compared 
to  a  thunderbolt,  or  to  a  desolating  tornado;  a  sage,  to  a  pillar  of  state.  In  each 
of  these  cases,  there  is  a  legitimate  simile,  because  there  is  a  likeness  of  some 
sort  between  the  objects  compared,  and  at  the  same  time  the  objects  themselves 
are  different  in  kind. 

The  principal  Kules  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  the  use  of  Similes 
are  the  following : 

Kule  1.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  things  which 
have  too  near  and  obvious  a  resemblance  to  the  object  com- 
pared. 

Effect  of  Surprise.  —  One  great  pleasure  of  the  act  of  comparing 
lies  in  discovering  likenesses  where  at  the  first  glance  we  should  not 
expect  to  find  them.  The  simile  in  such  cases  gives  us  the  pleasure 
of  an  agreeable  surprise. 

Examples.  —  Lover  says,  of  a  small,  swarthy  woman,  "  She 's  as  short  and 
as  dark  as  a  mid-winter  day."  Milton's  comparisons  nearly  always  have  this 
quality  of  giving  a  surprise,  besides  that  of  filling  the  mind  with  ideas  of  majesty 
and  grandeur.  To  give  us  some  idea  of  the  countless  number  of  the  fallen  host, 
he  says,  they 

"Lay  entranced 
Thick  as  autumnal  leaves  that  strew  the  brooks 
In  Vallombrosa." 

Satan's  imperial  ensign,  "  full  high  advanced,  shone  like  a  meteor,  streaming 
to  the  wind."  Satan's  own  appearance,  after  his  fall,  is  compared  to  that  of  the 
sun  suffering  an  eclipse,  and  shedding  disastrous  twilight  on  the  nations. 

In  all  these  examples,  the  reader,  on  recognizing  the  likeness,  feels  as  though 
he  had  made  an  unexpected  and  delightful  discovery.  Milton's  comparisons 
of  Eve's  bower  in  Paradise  to  the  arbor  of  Pomona,  and  of  Eve  herself  to  a  wood- 
nymph,  are  considered  less  happy,  as  no  great  ingenuity  is  required  to  imagine 
one  arbor  like  another  arbor,  or  one  beautiful  woman  like  another  beautiful 
woman. 

Trite  Similes.— Many  similes,  which  were  good  enough  when  first  used,  are 
no  longer  available,  because  they  have  become  trite  and  commonplace  by  fre- 
quent use.  Such  similes  are  those  comparing  a  hero  to  a  lion,  a  mourner  to  a 
flower  drooping  its  head,  passion  to  a  tempest,  and  so  on. 

Rule  2.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  objects  in  which 
the  likeness  is  too  faint  and  remote. 

Such  similes  are  said  to  be  far-fetched. 

Examples.  —  Some  of  the  older  poets  erred  frequently  in  this  line.  Thus 
Cowley,  speaking  of  a  friend,  says  that  at  night  before  retiring  to  sleep  he  washed 


160  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

away  from  his  soul  by  tears  all  the  stains  it  had  received  during  the  day,  as  the 
sun  sets  in  water  [the  ocean]  and  is  thereby  kept  unsullied. 

"Still  with  his  soul  severe  account  he  kept, 

Weeping  all  debts  out  ere  he  slept; 
Then  down  in  peace  and  innocence  he  lay, 

Like  the  sun's  laborious  light, 

Which  still  in  water  sets  at  night, 
Unsullied  with  the  journey  of  the  day." 

By  a  good  deal  of  study  and  thought  we  can  trace  here  some  resemblance  be- 
tween the  two  objects  compared,  that  is,  the  man  lying  down  at  night  bathed  in 
tears,  and  the  sun  setting  in  the  ocean ;  but  the  resemblance  is  faint,  and  requires 
entirely  too  much  study.    The  simile  is  far-fetched. 

It  is  worse  even  than  this.  There  is  absolute  falsehood  in  the  figure.  The 
author  states  as  a  fact  that  the  sun  purges  itself  in  the  water,  and  this  falsehood 
disappoints  and  vexes  the  reader. 

An  example  of  more  recent  date  is  the  following  from  Longfellow : 

The  day  is  done,  and  the  darkness 

Falls  from  the  wing  of  night, 
As  a  feather  is  wafted  downward 

From  an  eagle  in  his  flight. 

Rule  3.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  objects  with 
which  ordinary  readers  are  unacquainted. 

What  is  Excluded. —  This  rule  excludes  comparisons  founded  on 
scientific  discoveries,  or  on  objects  with  which  persons  of  a  certain 
trade  only,  or  a  certain  profession,  are  conversant.  In  accordance 
with  this  rule,  also,  it  is  well  to  avoid  drawing  comparisons  from 
ordinary  objects  in  foreign  countries,  with  which  most  readers  are 
acquainted  by  reading  only. 

Further  Cautions.— There  are  indeed  certain  noted  objects,  such  as  the 
Pyramids,  the  Alps,  the  Nile,  the  Tiber,  Rome,  Jerusalem,  London,  and  so  forth, 
with  which  well-read  people  everywhere  are  familiar.  But,  as  a  general  thing, 
writers  should  take  their  illustrations  from  objects  which  exist  in  their  own 
country,  and  which  they  and  their  readers  have  seen.  It  is  well  enough  for 
English  poets  to  sing  of  the  nightingale,  whose  high  note  is  heard  from  the 
boughs  in  the  stillness  of  midnight,  and  of  the  sky-lark,  which  at  '*  break  of  day 
sings  hymns  at  heaven's  gate ; "  but  American  poets  and  readers  know  nothing 
of  either  except  from  books. 

Rule  4.  Similes  should  not,  in  serious  discourse,  be  drawn 
from  objects  which  are  mean  or  low. 

This  rule  does  not  apply  to  Burlesque,  or  to  writings  intended  to 
degrade  and  vilify.  In  such  writings,  the  very  aim  of  the  author  is 
to  bring  an  object  into  ridicule  or  contempt,  by  associating  it  in  the 


FIGURES— SIMILE.  1G1 

mind  with  something  mean  or  ridiculous.  But  in  ordinary  discourse, 
the  aim  is  just  the  opposite,  and  care  should  be  taken  accordingly 
that  the  objects  to  which  anything  is  compared  should  not  only 
possess  a  likeness  to  it,  but  that  they  should  be  of  a  pleasing  and 
elevating  character. 

Examples.—  There  may  be  truth  in  the  following  comparison  from  Pope,  but 
the  simile  offends  the  reader,  because  it  associates  the  name  of  a  great  and  good 
man  with  a  mean  and  degrading  idea : 

Superior  beings,  when  of  late  they  saw 
A  mortal  man  unfold  all  nature's  law, 
Admired  such  wisdom  in  an  earthly  shape, 
And  showed  a  Newton  as  we  show  an  ape. 

The  two  following  examples  may  perhaps  be  allowable,  because  the  aim  of 
the  writer  is  to  belittle  the  subject : 

"  Mr. would  be  a  powerful  preacher  if  he  did  not  drown  his  thought  in  a 

Dead  Sea  of  words.  You  don't  want  a  drove  of  oxen  to  drag  a  cart-load  of  po- 
tatoes over  a  smooth  road." 

"  Skepticism  in  an  honest  and  thoughtful  young  man  is  like  the  chicken-pox, 
—very  apt  to  come,  but  not  dangerous,  and  soon  over,  leaving  both  complexion 
and  constitution  as  good  as  ever." 

Rule  5.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  great  or  sub- 
lime objects,  when  we  are  describing  what  is  low  or  trivial. 

Such  comparisons  may  be  proper  in  mock-heroic,  or  burlesque, 
but  not  in  serious  composition. 

A  popular  orator,  speaking  of  one  of  our  common  anniversary-days,  uses  the 
following  language :  "  Pharos  of  the  ages,  we  hail  thy  glimmerings  'mid  the 
cataracts  of  Time." 

Rule  6.  Similes  are  inappropriate  when  strong  passion  is 
to  be  expressed. 

To  pause  for  the  purpose  of  hunting  up  curious  likenesses  and 
comparisons,  implies  leisure  and  deliberation ;  and  passion,  just  in 
proportion  to  its  force,  is  unhesitating  and  rapid.  It  has  no  leisure 
to  cast  about  for  resemblances. 

The  hero  in  Addison's  Cato,  in  a  moment  of  violent  anguish  at  the  separation 
from  his  lady-love,  makes  the  following  elaborate  comparison,  which,  under  the 
circumstances,  cannot  be  regarded  otherwise  than  as  affected : 

Thus  o'er  the  dying  lamp  th'  unsteady  flame 
Hangs  quiv'ring  on  a  point,  leaps  off  by  fits, 
And  falls  again,  as  loth  to  quit  its  hold. 
Thou  must  not  go ;  my  soul  still  hovers  o'er  thee, 
And  can't  get  loose. 
14*  L       ' 


162  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

H.  METAPHOR. 

Metaphor  is  a  figure  founded  upon  the  resemblance  which 
one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence  it  is  nearly  allied  to 
Simile.     A  metaphor  is,  indeed,  a  sort  of  abridged  simile. 

Difference  between  Metaphor  and  Simile. —  If  we  say  of  a  great 
statesman,  "  He  upholds  the  state,  like  the  pillar  which  upholds  an 
edifice,"  we  make  the  comparison  by  a  Simile.  If  we  say  of  him, 
"  He  is  the  pillar  of  the  state,"  we  make  the  same  comparison  by  a 
Metaphor.  In  simile,  the  comparison  is  usually  expressed  by  like, 
as,  such  as,  or  words  of  similar  import.  In  metaphor,  the  compari- 
son, if  made  at  all,  is  not  formally  expressed  in  words.  One  object 
is  assumed  to  be  so  like  another,  that  things  properly  belonging 
to  the  one  are  attributed  to  the  other,  without  stopping  to  draw  a 
formal  comparison  between  them  —  without,  in  fact,  stopping  to 
think  whether  such  a  likeness  exists  or  not.  If  the  metaphor 
expresses,  or  even  suggests  comparison,  that  metaphor  is  faulty. 
Not  that  a  metaphor  may  not  be  taken  to  pieces,  and  be  shown  to 
owe  its  existence,  to  comparison ;  but  it  should  not,  at  first  sight, 
suggest  comparison.  The  figure  should  be  so  involved  in  the  sub- 
ject that  you  can  hardly  pull  the  two  apart.  In  simile,  on  the 
contrary,  the  subject  and  the  figure  are  but  Siamese  twins ;  a  whip 
of  the  knife,  and  the  two  are  divided,  without  damage  to  either. 

Effectiveness  of  Metaphor. —  The  metaphor  is  a  more  lively  and 
animated  method  than  the  simile  for  expressing  comparison.  Meta- 
phor, indeed,  of  all  the  figures,  comes  nearest  to  painting,  enabling 
us  to  clothe  at  will  the  most  abstract  ideas  with  life,  form,  color,  and 
motion,  and  to  "  give  to  airy  nothing  a  local  habitation  and  a  name." 

A  few  examples  will  show  how  much  more  condensed  and  effec- 
tive the  metaphor  is  than  the  simile. 

Simile:  As  it  is  a  flattering  condescension  when  the  eye  of  a  sovereign  rests 
upon  a  subject,  so  it  is  when  the  light  of  the  morning  sun  first  falls  upon  the 
mountain-tops.  As  an  image  of  burnished  gold,  when  brought  within  kissing 
distance  of  any  dull  objects,  lights  ihem  up  with  its  own  shining  radiance, 
making  them  also  look  like  gold,  so  the  morning  rays  of  the  sun,  after  first 
touching  the  mountain-tops,  descend  gradually  to  the  valleys,  lighting  up  the 
green  meadows  and  the  pale  streams,  as  with  some  heavenly  gilding. 

Metaphor: 

Full  many  a  glorious  morning  have  I  seen 
FkUUr  the  mountain-top  with  sorran  eye, 


FIG  URES— METAPHOR.  163 

Kissing  with  golden  face  the  meadows  green, 

Gilding  pale  streams  with  heavenly  alchemy. — Shakespeare. 

Simile :  As,  in  passing  through  a  prism,  beams  of  white  light  are  decomposed 
into  the  colors  of  the  rainbow ;  so,  in  traversing  the  soul  of  the  poet,  the  color- 
less rays  of  truth  are  transformed  into  bright-tinted  poetry. 

Metaphor:  The  white  light  of  truth,  in  traversing  the  many-sided  transpar- 
ent soul  of  the  poet,  is  refracted  into  iris-hued  poetry.— Herbert  Spencer. 

Simile:  The  temper  of  the  nation,  loaded  already  with  grievances,  was  like  a 
vessel  that  is  now  full,  and  this  additional  provocation,  like  the  last  drop  infused, 
made  their  rage  and  resentment  as  waters  of  bitterness  overflow. 

Metaphor:  The  vessel  was  now  full,  and  this  last  drop  made  the  waters  of 
bitterness  overflow.— Bolingbroke. 

Kules  for  Simile  and  for  Metaphor.  —  The  rules  which  have  been 
given  in  regard  to  the  Simile  apply  in  some  measure  to  the  Meta- 
phor also.  Metaphors  ordinarily  should  not  be  drawn  from  things 
having  too  near  and  obvious  a  resemblance,  from  things  in  which 
the  likeness  is  too  faint  or  remote,  from  things  with  which  ordinary 
readers  are  unacquainted,  from  objects  mean  and  low,  or  from  ob- 
jects too  far  above  that  which  they  are  intended  to  illustrate. 
Metaphors,  however,  are  often  used  for  the  expression  of  strong 
passion,  and  in  tins  respect  differ  materially  from  similes.  Meta- 
phor, being  an  abbreviated  simile,  suits  very  well  the  rapid  vehe- 
mence of  passion. 

Examples  of  this  abound  in  Shakespeare.  No  portions  of  his  plays  so  teem 
with  metaphor  as  those  most  highly  tragical.  The  Bastard  in  King  John,  seeing 
Hubert  take  up  the  body  of  the  murdered  Prince,  exclaims, 

How  easy  dost  thou  take  all  England  up! 

When  the  assassin  discloses  to  the  Prince  the  red-hot  iron,  and  declares  that  he 
has  come  to  burn  out  the  Prince's  eyes  therewith,  Arthur  begs  him  not  to  be 
more  cruel  than  even  the  instrument  of  torture : 

The  iron  of  itself,  though  heat  red-hot, 
Approaching  near  these  eyes,  would  drink  my  tears, 
And  quench  his  fiery  indignation 
Even  in  the  matter  of  mine  innocence. 

As  the  rules  relating  especially  to  the  Simile  illustrate  to  some 
extent  the  Metaphor,  so  also  the  rules  relating  especially  to  the 
Metaphor  illustrate  to  some  extent  the  use  of  the  Simile.  The 
rules  which  more  particularly  limit  the  use  of  the  Metaphor  are  the 
folio  winsr : 


164  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Rule  1.  The  metaphorical  and  the  literal  should  not  be 
mixed  in  the  same  sentence. 

Bale  Explained.  -A  metaphor  having  been  introdnced  into  a  sen- 
tence, all  parts  of  the  sentence  should  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
figure  thus  introduced.  This  rule  is  violated  when  part  of  the 
words  are  such  as  apply  to  the  figure,  and  part  are  plain  and  literal. 

Examples.—  Dryden  says,  speaking  of  the  aids  he  had  had  in  some  of  his 
literary  labors,  "  I  was  sailing  in  a  vast  ocean  [metaphor],  without  other  help  than 
the  pole-star  [metaphor  continued]  of  the  ancients,  and  the  rules  of  the  French  stage 
[literal]  among  the  moderns." 

In  Pope's  translation  of  Homer,  Penelope,  speaking  of  the  loss  of  her  husband, 
and  then  of  the  abrupt  departure  of  her  son,  says : 

Long  to  my  joys  my  dearest  lord  is  lost, 
His  country's  buckler,  and  the  Grecian  boast; 
Now,  from  my  fond  embrace  by  tempests  torn, 
Our  other  column  [met.]  of  the  state  is  borne, 
Nor  took  a  kind  adieu,  nor  sought  consent. 

Here  her  son  is  figured  in  one  line  as  a  column,  and  in  the  next  he  is  a  person, 
to  whom  it  belongs  to  take  adieu,  and  to  ask  consent.  This  is  incongruous.  It 
is  mixing  up  the  metaphorical  and  the  literal  in  the  same  construction.  Having 
spoken  of  Telemachus  under  the  metaphor  of  a  column,  the  author  should  not 
have  ascribed  to  him  in  that  sentence  anything  but  what  could  be  ascribed  to  a 
column. 

"  Boyle  was  the  father  of  Chemistry,  and  brother  to  the  Earl  of  Cork." 

To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays, 

The  harvest  [met.]  early,  but  mature  [met.]  the  praise  [lit.]. 

The  fault  here  is  not  serious.  Yet  every  reader  feels  that  but  for  the  sake  of  a 
rhyme,  the  second  line  would  have  ended  "  mature  the  crop." 

Examples  of  Correct  Metaphor. —  The  following  are  examples  of 
sentences  in  which  the  language  of  the  metaphor  is  sustained  and 
consistent  throughout : 

Speaking  of  the  king's  honor:  "The  feather  that  adorns  the  royal  bird  sup- 
ports his  flight.  Strip  him  of  his  plumage,  and  you  fix  him  to  the  earth."— 
Junius. 

"In  the  shipwreck  of  the  state,  trifles  float  and  are  preserved;  while  every- 
thing solid  and  valuable  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  is  lost  forever."  —  Junius. 

Of  a  hero:  "In  peace,  thou  art  the  gale  of  spring;  in  war,  the  mountain 
storm."  —  Ossian. 

Of  a  woman:  "She  was  covered  with  the  light  of  beauty ;  but  her  heart  was 
the  bearer  of  pride."  —  Ossian. 

"Trothal  went  forth  with  the  stream  of  his  people,  but  they  met  a  rock  :  for 
Fingal  stood  unmoved ;  broken,  they  rolled  back  from  his  side."  —  Oman. 


FIGURES— METAPHOR.  165 

Speaking  of  an  artist : 

"  You  make  him  but  the  spigot  of  a  cask, 
Round  which  you,  teachers,  wait  with  silver  cups 
To  bear  away  the  wine  that  leaves  it  dry."  —Holland's  Kathrina. 

Rule  2.  Two  different  metaphors  should  not  be  used  in 
the  same  sentence  and  in  reference  to  the  same  subject. 

This  produces  what  is  called  mixed  metaphor,  and  is  a  worse  fault 
even  than  mixing  the  metaphorical  and  the  literal  in  the  same  sen- 
tence. 

Examples.  —  Shakespeare's  expression,  "To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  trou- 
bles" is  open  to  criticism  on  this  ground.    Addison  says : 

"I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain."       • 

The  muse,  figured  as  a  horse,  maybe  "  bridled ; "  but  when  we  speak  of  "  launch- 
ing," we  make  it  a  ship.    The  author  bridles  it  to  keep  it  from  launching  ! 

In  religious  discourse  people  are  apt  to  use  Scripture  metaphors  in  a  careless 
way.  The  following  curious  jumble  once  took  place :  A  man  prayed  that  "  the 
word  which  had  been  preached  might  be  like  a  nail  driven  in  a  sure  place,  send- 
ing its  roots  downward  and  its  branches  upward,  spreading  itself  like  a  green 
bay-tree,  fair  as  the  moon,  clear  as  the  sun,  and  terrible  as  an  army  with  ban- 
ners!" 

Observe  the  mixing  of  metaphors  in  the  following  passages :  "  The  shot  of  the 
enemy  mowed  down  our  ranks  with  frightful  rapidity.  On  every  hand  men  and 
horses  lay  in  universal  carnage,  like  scattered  wrecks  on  a  storm-beaten  shore." 

"  His  thoughts  soared  up  from  earth  like  fire  and  winged  their  flight  to  distant 
stars." 

"  Traitors  may  talk  of  England  going  down 
(In  quicksands  that  their  coward  selves  have  sown) — 
She  swims  in  hearts  like  these !  "—Gerald  Massey. 

Here,  in  three  short  lines,  we  have  bad  grammar  ("  England  going  down  "  ;  it 
should  be  "  England's  going  down"),  bad  rhyme  ("down"  and  "sown"),  bad 
metaphors  (England  swimming  in  hearts !  and  sowing  "  quicksands  "  —  he  might 
as  well  have  talked  of  sowing  batter-pudding!)  and  lastly,  very  commonplace 
thought  as  the  basis  of  the  whole. 

Rule  3.  Metaphors  on  the  same  subject  should  not  be 
crowded  together  in  rapid  succession. 

Explanation.  —  Though  the  figure  in  each  case  may  he  distinct 
and  consistently  carried  out,  yet  the  mind,  having  in  quick  succes- 
sion to  conceive  the  subject,  first  in  its  literal  sense,  then  in  a  figura- 
tive sense,  and  then  again  in  still  another  figure,  becomes  confused. 

Example.  —  Swift  says,  "  Those  whose  minds  are  dull  and  heavy  do  not  easily 
penetrate  into  the  folds  and  intricacies  of  an  affair,  and  therefore  can  only  scum 


166  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

off  what  they  find  at  the  top."  Here  the  mind  has,  first,  to  think  of  the  literal 
fact,  namely,  that  dull  people  do  not  easily  penetrate  the  difficulties  of  a  subject ; 
next,  to  think  of  this  fact  under  the  similitude  of  handling  the  outer  folds  of  a 
bale  of  cloth,  without  ever  getting  at  the  inside ;  and  then  again  to  think  of  the 
same  fact  under  the  similitude  of  skimming  the  top  of  some  impure  liquid  with- 
out reaching  the  bottom.  The  two  metaphors,  though  separable,  are  in  such 
close  succession  that  they  have  the  effect  of  a  mixed  metaphor. 

Rule  4.  Metaphors  should  not  be  multiplied  to  excess. 

Explanation.  —  Though  the  metaphors  may  refer  to  different  sub- 
jects, and  be  in  different  sentences,  and  therefore  not  come  within 
either  of  the  two  preceding  rules,  yet  if  they  are  greatly  multiplied, 
they  have  a  confusing  effect  upon  the  mind.  The  variety  of  subjects 
distracts  the  attention. 

Excessive  Use  of  Figures.—  The  effect  of  unduly  multiplying  meta- 
phors is  very  much  like  that  produced  by  being  over-dressed.  This 
is  true,  not  of  metaphor  merely,  but  of  every  kind  of  figure.  Fig- 
ures, whether  for  ornament  or  for  illustration,  to  have  their  proper 
effect,  must  be  used  with  moderation.  Really  good  metaphors, 
occurring  only  here  and  there,  at  judicious  intervals,  and  on  suit- 
able subjects,  have  a  brilliant  effect.  But  if  multiplied  too  much, 
no  matter  how  sparkling  each  may  be  in  itself,  they  produce  only  a 
disagreeable  glitter. 

Rule  5.  Metaphors  should  not  be  carried  too  far. 

This  fault  is  committed  when  the  resemblance  on  which  the  meta- 
phor is  founded  is  carried  out  into  a  great  many  minute  and  irrele- 
vant circumstances.     This  is  called  straining  the  metaphor. 

Example.—  Young  says  of  old  age,  that  it  should 

Walk  thoughtful  on  the  silent,  solemn  shore 

Of  that  vast  ocean  it  must  sail  so  soon ; 

And  put  good  works  on  board ;  and  wait  the  wind 

That  shortly  blows  us  into  worlds  unknown. 

The  expression  in  the  first  two  lines  is  universally  admired.  But  when  the 
author  begins  to  "put  good  works  on  board,"  and  to  "wait  the  wind,"  the 
metaphor  becomes  strained  and  loses  dignity.  Instead  of  the  deep  emotion 
excited  by  walking  "thoughtful  on  the  silent,  solemn  shore,"  the  mind  is 
brought  down  to  the  prosaic  and  calculating  operations  of  a  seafaring  enter- 
prise. 


FIGURES— ALLEGORY.  167 

HI.  ALLEGORY. 

An  Allegory  is  a  description  of  one  thing  under  the  image 
of  another ;  it  is  a  sort  of  continued  Metaphor. 

Difference  between  Allegory  and  Metaphor.—  Allegory  differs  from 
Metaphor  in  two  respects.  First,  it  is  carried  out  into  a  great 
variety  of  particulars,  making  usually  a  complete  and  connected 
story.  Secondly,  it  suppresses  all  mention  of  the  principal  subject, 
leaving  us  to  infer  the  writer's  intention  from  the  resemblance  of 
the  narrative,  or  of  the  description  to  the  principal  subject. 

Points  in  Common.—  Allegory,  Metaphor,  and  Simile  have  this  in 
common,  that  they  are  all  founded  in  resemblance,  there  being  in 
each  case  two  subjects,  a  primary  and  a  secondary,  having  certain 
points  of  likeness.  In  Simile,  this  resemblance  is  expressed  in  form, 
as  when  it  is  said,  "  Israel  is  like  a  vine,  brought  from  Egypt,  and 
planted  in  Palestine."  In  Metaphor  the  formal  comparison  is 
dropped,  as  when  it  is  said,  "  Israel  is  a  vine  brought  from  Egypt," 
etc.  In  Allegory,  both  the  formal  comparison  and  the  principal  sub- 
ject are  dropped,  and  the  secondary  subject  is  described  by  itself, 
leaving  the  application  entirely  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader,  as 
when  it  is  said,  "  God  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt,  and  planted  it 
in  Palestine."  The  reader  knows  that  by  the  vine  is  meant  God's 
people,  Israel ;  yet  Israel  is  not  once  mentioned,  and  there  is  neither 
metaphor  nor  simile,  though  there  is  a  likeness. 

This  allegory  occurs  in  the  eightieth  Psalm,  and  is  as  follows : 

"  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt:  thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and 
planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  for  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and 
it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs 
thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out  her  boughs  unto  the  sea,  and 
her  branches  unto  the  river.  Why  hast  thou  broken  down  her  hedges,  so  that 
all  they  which  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her  ?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth 
waste  it,  and  the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it." 

Here  every  circumstance,  except  that  of  casting  out  the  heathen,  answers  to 
the  description  of  a  vine,  while  at  the  same  time  God's  dealings  with  the  Jewish 
people,  though  not  once  named,  are  plainly  suggested  to  the  mind  of  the  reader. 
If  the  Psalmist,  instead  of  saying  that  the  vine  was  wasted  by  the  boar  from  the 
wood,  and  devoured  by  the  wild  beasts,  had  said  that  it  was  afiiicted  by  heathens, 
or  overcome  by  enemies,  (which  was  his  real  meaning,)  he  would  have  spoiled 
the  allegory. 

Allegory,  Parable,  and  Fable  are  closely  akin  to  each  other,  and 
these  terms  are  often  interchangeable.     Some  distinctions  between 


168  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

them,  however,  are  worthy  of  notice.  Allegory  is  the  only  term 
used  in  reference  to  extended  works  of  this  kind,  such  as  Pilgrim's 
Progress  and  the  Faery  Queen.  Shorter  allegorical  compositions 
are  more  frequently  called  Fables,  or  Parables,  the  latter  term  be- 
ing specially  used  for  specimens  of  this  kind  in  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
The  story  told  by  Jotham,  in  the  ninth  chapter  of  Judges,  of  the 
trees  choosing  for  themselves  a  king,  is  called  a  Parable.  Had  it 
occurred  in  iEsop,  it  would  have  been  called  a  Fable.  None  of 
these  distinctions,  however,  in  regard  to  the  allegory,  the  parable, 
and  the  fable,  are  absolute. 

Where  Found. —  Oriental  nations  are  much  addicted  to  the  use  of 
this  kind  of  writing,  and  there  are  many  excellent  instances  of  it 
in  the  Bible.  There  are  no  Parables  comparable  for  excellence  to 
those  in  the  New  Testament.  Among  the  ancients  the  Fables  of 
iEsop  are  especially  famous.  The  most  perfect  Allegory  in  all 
literature  is  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  by  Bunyan. 

Eecent  Example.—  The  following  passage  from  a  recent  work, 
Forbes's  Travels  through  the  Alps,  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Simile, 
or  Metaphor,  extended  into  Allegory. 

Poets  and  philosophers  have  delighted  to  compare  the  course  of  human  life  to 
that  of  a  river :  perhaps  a  still  apter  simile  might  he  found  in  the  history  of  a 
glacier.  Heaven-descended  in  its  origin,  it  yet  takes  its  mould  and  conformation 
from  the  hidden  womb  of  the  mountains  which  brought  it  forth.  At  first  soft 
and  ductile,  it  acquires  a  character  and  firmness  of  its  own,  as  an  inevitable 
destiny  urges  it  in  its  onward  career.  Jostled  and  constrained  by  the  crosses  and 
inequalities  of  its  prescribed  path,  hedged  in  by  impassable  barriers  which  fix 
limits  to  its  movements,  it  yields  groaning  to  its  fate,  and  still  travels  forward, 
seamed  with  the  scars  of  many  a  conflict  with  opposing  obstacles.  All  this 
while,  although  wasting,  it  is  renewed  by  an  unseen  power  — it  evaporates,  but 
is  not  consumed.  On  its  surface  it  bears  the  spoils  which,  during  the  progress  of 
its  existence,  it  has  made  its  own;— often  weighty  burdens,  devoid  of  beauty 
or  value,— at  times  precious  masses,  sparkling  with  gems  or  with  ore.  Having 
at  length  attained  its  greatest  width  and  extension,  commanding  admiration  by 
its  beauty  and  power,  waste  predominates  over  supply,  the  vital  springs  begin  to 
fail ;  it  stoops  into  an  attitude  of  decrepitude ;  it  drops  the  burdens,  one  by  one, 
which  it  had  borne  so  proudly  aloft ;  its  dissolution  is  inevitable.  But  as  it  is 
resolved  into  its  elements,  it  takes,  all  at  once,  a  new,  and  livelier,  and  disem- 
barrassed form  :  —  from  the  wreck  of  its  members  it  arises,  another,  and  yet  the 
same,— a  noble,  full-bodied,  arrowy  stream,  which  leaps  rejoicing  over  the  ob- 
stacles which  before  had  stayed  its  progress,  and  hastens  through  fertile  valleys 
towards  a  freer  existence,  and  a  final  union  in  the  ocean  with  the  boundless  and 
the  infinite. 

This  figure  may  be  open  to  some  extent  to  the  objection  that  it  is 


FIGURES— ANTITHESIS.  169 

based  upon  scientific  knowledge.  But  the  description  of  glacial 
action  has  occupied  of  late  so  large  a  place  in  popular  literature 
that  the  objection  may  be  waived.  The  figure  certainly  is  singu- 
larly beautiful. 

Rule. —  The  principal,  almost  the  only  rule,  in  regard  to 
Allegory,  is  to  avoid  mingling  the  literal  signification  with 
the  figurative. 

Allegory  is  a  very  difficult  kind  of  composition,  in  which  few  suc- 
ceed. None  should  attempt  it  unless  they  have  by  nature  a  special 
aptitude  for  it. 

IV.  ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis,  unlike  the  figures  thus  far  considered,  is  not 
founded  on  resemblance,  but  on  contrast  or  opposition.  It 
consists  in  putting  two  unlike  things  in  juxtaposition,  so 
that  each  will  appear  more  striking  by  the  contrast. 

The  effect  produced  is  in  accordance  with  a  general  law  of  mental 
action,  that  all  objects  of  knowledge  make  a  stronger  impression  on 
the  mind  when  presented  alongside  of  their  opposites.  White  never 
appears  so  bright  as  when  bordering  immediately  upon  black.  Sound 
never  seems  so  loud  as  when  preceded  and  followed  by  perfect  si- 
lence. When,  therefore,  we  wish  to  give  to  a  thought  special  em- 
phasis, we  often  do  so  by  connecting  the  thought  with  an  expression 
of  its  opposite,  or  of  something  with  which  it  is  contrasted. 

Examples  of  Antithesis.— ■"  When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  that 
we  leave  them."  •'  The  prodigal  robs  his  heir,  the  miser  robs  himself."  "  If  you 
wish  to  make  a  man  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to  diminish  his 
desires." 

Rule. —  The  only  practical  Rule  in  regard  to  Antithesis 
is  to  give  the  contrasted  ideas  a  similar  verbal  construction. 
Let  nouns  be  contrasted  to  nouns,  adjectives  to  adjectives, 
verbs  to  verbs,  and  so  on,  and  let  the  arrangement  of  the 
words  in  the  contrasted  clauses  be  also  as  nearly  alike  as 
possible. 

The  reason  for  this  rule  is  obvious.     If  two  objects,  one  white 
and  one  black,  are  placed  side  by  side,  the  difference  between  them 
15 


170  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

in  color  will  be  all  the  more  striking  if  the  objects  are  in  other  re- 
spects alike,  that  is,  are  of  the  same  material,  size,  and  shape.  So 
in  composition,  the  point  of  an  antithesis  is  made  much  more  marked 
by  making  the  contrasted  clauses  closely  analogous  in  construction. 

Examples.—  If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard  of  nature, 
you  will  never  be  poor ;  if  according  to  the  standard  of  opinion,  you  will  never 
be  rich. 

Flattery  brings  friends ;  truth  brings  foes. 

Forewarned,  forearmed. 

Enemies  in  war ;  in  peace  friends. 

Caution. —  Antithesis  must  be  used  with  caution.  If  employed 
too  frequently,  it  gives  to  the  style  a  labored  and  unnatural  charac- 
ter, and  produces  the  impression  that  an  author  is  less  concerned 
with  what  he  says  than  how  he  says  it.  It  also  makes  the  matter 
read  like  a  string  of  proverbs,  which  usually  have  the  antithetical 
form.  This  is  the  vice  of  the  style  of  some  French  writers,  of 
Victor  Hugo,  for  example,  and  of  many  Spanish  writers. 

Example—  The  following  passage  may  be  given  as  an  illustration  of  this 
fault :  "  The  peasant  complains  aloud :  the  courtier  in  secret  repines.  In  want, 
what  distress?  in  affluence,  what  satiety?  The  great  are  under  as  much  diffi- 
culty to  expend  with  pleasure,  as  the  mean  to  labor  with  success.  The  ignorant, 
through  ill-grounded  hope,  are  disappointed ;  the  knowing,  through  knowledge, 
despond.  Ignorance  occasions  mistake ;  mistake  disappointment;  and  disap- 
pointment is  misery,  Knowledge,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  true  judgment ;  and 
true  judgment  of  human  things  gives  a  demonstration  of  their  insufficiency  to 
our  peace."—  Young. 

Effect  of  such  Passages.  —  Passages  like  this  invariably  weary  the 
reader.  Antithesis  following  antithesis,  sentence  after  sentence,  has 
the  same  effect  that  multiplying  emphatic  words  has  in  reading  or 
speaking.     So  many  things  are  made  striking,  that  nothing  strikes. 

The  following  passage  contains  fine  examples  both  of  Antithesis 
and  of  Metaphor : 

Talent,  the  sunshine  on  a  cultured  soil, 
Ripens  the  fruit  by  slow  degrees  for  toil; 
Genius,  the  sudden  Iris  of  the  skies, 
On  cloud  itself  reflects  the  wondrous  dyes, 
And  to  the  earth  in  tears  and  glory  given. 
Clasps  in  its  airy  arch  the  pomp  of  heaven! 

The  following,  from  Bulwer,  contains  a  good  example  both  of 
Antithesis  and  Simile: 

Man.  like  the  child,  accepts  the  proffered  boon, 
And  clasps  the  bauble,  where  he  asked  the  moon. 


FIGURES— EPIGRAM.  171 

V.  EPIGRAM. 

Epigram  meant  originally  an  inscription  on  a  monument. 
As  such  inscriptions  are  usually  short,  containing  as  much 
as  possible  in  a  few  words,  Epigram  came  next  to  mean  any 
brief  saying,  prose  or  poetical,  remarkable  for  brevity  and 
point,  and  the  word  is  even  yet  used  largely  in  this  sense. 

Special  Meaning.  —  There  is  one  particular  mode  by  which  the 
same  startling  effect  is  produced,  and  that  is  by  a  contradiction 
between  the  form  of  expression  and  the  meaning  really  intended. 
Take  the  expression,  "The  child  is  father  to  the  man."  Here  the 
language,  taken  literally,  contradicts  itself;  yet  the  meaning  is  plain 
enough,  and  is  all  the  more  striking  for  being  presented  in  this  form. 
The  term  Epigram  is  now  sometimes  used  to  express  this  particular 
mode  of  giving  brevity  and  point  to  a  thought. 

Relation  of  Epigram  to  Antithesis.— Epigram,  in  this  sense,  is  akin 
to  Antithesis,  because  in  both  of  these  figures  there  is  the  element 
of  contrariety.  But  in  Antithesis  it  is  the  contrariety  between 
two  different  things  brought  together;  in  Epigram  it  is  the  con- 
trariety between  the  apparent  meaning  of  the  words  and  the  real 
meaning. 

Examples.— The  following  are  examples  of  this  kind  of  Epigram : 

Beauty,  when  unadorned,  adorned  the  most. 

When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  it. 

He  is  a  man  of  principle,  in  proportion  to  his  interest 

Conspicuous  for  its  absence. 

We  could  not  see  the  woods  for  the  trees. 

Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 

So  many  things  are  striking  that  nothing  strikes. 

The  easiest  way  of  doing  nothing  is  to  do  it. 

Language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought. 

Summer  has  set  in  with  its  usual  severity. 

Epigram,  in  the  sense  above  explained,  consists  mainly  in  a  play 
upon  words,  and  so  leads  naturally  to  Pun,  which  turns  entirely 
upon  using  words  in  a  double  meaning.  This  will  be  considered  in 
the  following  chapter. 

VI.  METONYMY. 

Metonymy  means  a  change  of  name.  This  is  a  figure  in 
which  the  name  of  one  object  is  put  for  some  other  object, 


172  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

the  two  being  so  related  that  the  mention  of  one  naturally 
suggests  the  other. 

Example.— When  it  is  said,  " The  drunkard  loves  his  bottle"  we  know  that  it 
is  not  the  bottle,  but  what  it  contains,  that  the  drunkard  loves.  The  bottle  is  put 
for  the  liquor,  the  container  for  the  thing  contained,  and  this  change  of  name  is 
a  Metonymy. 

Metonymies  are  very  numerous  in  kind,  and  occur  more  frequently 
perhaps  than  any  other  figure  of  speech.  Among  the  various  rela- 
tions which  give  rise  to  Metonymy  are  the  following:  Cause  and 
Effect,  Subject  and  Attribute,  Container  and  thing  contained,  Sign 
and  thing  signified,  etc. 

Cause  for  the  Effect.—"  He  writes  a  beautiful  hand,"  that  is,  "  hand-writing." 
"  I  am  reading  Milton"  that  is,  his  works.  "  The  pen  [literature]  is  the  great  civil- 
izer."  In  like  manner,  in  old  times,  the  names  of  the  mythological  deities  were 
put  for  the  qualities  or  things  which  they  were  supposed  to  represent,  as  Bac- 
chus for  wine,  Ceres  for  bread,  Pallas  for  wisdom,  Mars  for  war,  Venus  for  love, 
Neptune  for  the  ocean,  etc. 

Effect  for  Cause.—'-  Gray  hairs  [old  age]  should  be  respected."  "  There  is  death 
fa  death-causing  thing]  in  the  pot."  "  Man  shall  live  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  " 
[by  the  labor  which  causes  sweat  upon  the  brow].  "Cold  death"  that  which 
makes  its  subject  cold.    "  Drowsy  night,"  that  which  produces  drowsiness. 

Container  for  thing  contained.—"  The  kettle  [the  water  in  the  kettle]  boils." 
"  He  keeps  a  good  table"  "  They  smote  the  city."  "  Ye  devour  widows'  houses." 
"  The  House  was  called  to  order."    "  He  smokes  his  pipe." 

The  Sign  for  the  thing  signified .—"  He  assumed  the  sceptre"  [the  sover- 
eignty]. "  At  the  present  day,  bayonets  think."  "  In  war  the  bullet,  in  peace  the 
ballot  rules."    "  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword." 

VII.  SYNECDOCHE. 

Synecdoche  is  a  figure  somewhat  akin  to  Metonymy.  In 
Metonymy  we  use  the  name  of  an  object  to  signify  some 
other  connected  object,  as  when  we  say  bottle,  but  mean  the 
liquor  contained  in  it.  In  Synecdoche  we  do  not  change  a 
name  from  one  object  to  another,  but  we  give  to  an  object  a 
name  which  literally  expresses  something  more  or  something 
less  than  we  intend. 

Examples.— We  speak  of  a  sail,  or  of  a  keel,  meaning  thereby  a  whole  ship. 
A  part  is  taken  for  a  whole.  We  Rpeak  of  the  world,  when  we  mean  only  a  cer- 
tain limited  portion  of  the  people  that  compose  the  world.  Here  a  whole  is 
used  for  a  part.  The  word  Synecdoche  means  comprehension,  that  is,  including 
many  parti  under  the  name  of  one  of  them,  and  the  most  common  form  of  tho 
flfure  is  that  ilrst  described,  in  which  a  part  is  taken  for  the  whole,  as  sail  for 


FIGURES— INTERROGATION.  173 

ship,  head  for  person,  waves  for  sea,  blood  for  life,  hands  for  workmen,  lances  for 
horsemen,  etc.  "I  abjure  all  roofs"  [houses],  "She  has  seen  sixteen  summers" 
{ years].  "  An  old  man  of  eighty  winters  "  [years].  "  The  colt  will  be  three  years 
old  next  grass"  [spring].  "Thirty  sail  [ships]  were  seen  off  the  coast."  "  The 
snows  of  sixty  winters  [years]  whitened  his  head." 

VIII.  INTERROGATION. 

Interrogation  Explained. — We  often  ask  a  question,  not  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  an  answer,  or  of  receiving  information,  hut  as  a 
means  of  expressing  our  own  opinion  more  strongly.  It  is  as  much 
as  to  say,  there  is  but  one  possible  answer  to  this  question. 

Example.— "  Who  goeth  a  warfare  at  any  time  at  his  own  charges?  who 
planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof?  or  who  feedeth  a  flock, 
and  eateth  not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock  ?  "  The  apostle  does  not  ask  these  ques- 
tions for  the  sake  of  learning  anything  on  the  subject,  but  as  an  emphatic  way 
of  saying  that  those  who  enter  military  or  any  other  service  expect  to  have  at 
least  their  expenses  paid.  It  is  a  thing  that  admits  of  no  question.  Who  ever 
heard  of  its  being  otherwise? 

Definition. —  By  Interrogation,  then,  as  a  rhetorical  figure, 
is  meant  putting  our  opinions  in  the  form  of  questions  for 
the  purpose  thereby  of  expressing  our  views  more  positively 
and  vehemently. 

Pecnliarities. —  In  regard  to  this  figure  two  peculiarities  are  to  be 
observed.  1.  A  negative  Interrogation  affirms.  "Am  I  not  an 
apostle?  am  I  not  free?  have  I  not  seen  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord?  are 
not  ye  my  work  in  the  Lord  ?  "  Paul  here  intends  to  affirm  these 
several  points  as  being  true  beyond  question.  2.  An  affirmative 
question  denies.  "Do  we  provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy?  are  we 
stronger  than  He  ?  "  This  is  equivalent  to  saying,  with  strong  em- 
phasis, "We  do  not  provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy;  we  are  not 
stronger  than  He." 

"  Who  hath  heard  our  report?  and  to  whom  is  the  arm  of  the  Lord  revealed  ?  " 
This  is  equivalent  to  saying,  "No  one  hath  heard  our  report;  the  arm  of  the 
Lord  hath  not  been  revealed  to  any  one."  This  figure  is  of  very  frequent  recur- 
rence in  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

IX.  EXCLAMATION. 

Exclamation  is  a  figure  akin  to  Interrogation.     Instead 
of  stating  a  fact  simply  and  calmly,  the  writer  or  speaker 
utters  an  expression  of  surprise,  or  of  emotion  of  some  kind, 
15* 


174  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

on  seeing  that  the  thing  is  so.  Exclamation,  therefore,  is  a 
figure  which  expresses  a  thing  strongly  by  expressing  emotion 
on  account  of  it. 

"  This  is  a  sad  event,"  is  a  plain,  simple  statement.  "  What  a  sad  event! "  is 
the  same  thing  expressed  with  emotion. 

Cautions. —  Exclamation  is  suitable  only  in  cases  of  real  emotion. 
A  common  mistake  of  feeble  writers  is  to  imagine  that  a  passage 
becomes  emotional  by  merely  putting  it  into  the  form  of  an  excla- 
mation, although  the  thought  itself  is  perfectly  simple  and  common- 
place. Such  a  use  of  the  figure,  instead  of  making  the  composition 
more  animated,  makes  it  frigid.  Nothing  in  style  is  so  chilling  as 
affecting  a  passion  which  one  does  not  feel.  An  author  who  is  all 
the  while  calling  upon  us  to  enter  into  transports  which  he  says 
nothing  to  inspire,  only  disgusts  us. 

The  occasions  which  justify  the  use  of  Exclamation  are  compara- 
tively rare,  and  writers  should  be  correspondingly  careful  in  resort- 
ing to  it.  A  reader,  who  on  opening  a  new  book  sees  its  pages 
thickly  bespangled  with  exclamation  points,  is  apt  to  lay  the  book 
aside  without  further  examination. 

When  properly  used,  however,  this  figure  is  one  of  great  value 

and  power.     Lyric  and  Dramatic  poetry  abound  with  examples. 

"A  horse!  a  horse!  my  kingdom  for  a  horse !"—  Richard  III. 

"  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man !  how  noble  in  reason !  how  infinite  in  faculties ! 
in  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable !  in  action,  how  like  an  angel ! 
in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god !  the  beauty  of  the  world !  the  paragon  of  ani- 
mals !"  —  Hamlet. 

"  How  is  the  gold  become  dim !  how  is  the  most  fine  gold  changed ! " 

Jeremiah. 

Hymns,  being  mainly  expressive  of  emotion,  abound  in  exclama- 
tion beyond  any  other  species  of  composition. 

X.  APOSTROPHE. 

Definition.  —  The  same  excited  state  of  feeling  which  causes 
Exclamation  leads  also  to  Apostrophe.  The  word  means  a 
turning  away.  It  is  a  figure  in  which  we  turn  from  the 
regular  course  of  thought,  and  instead  of  continuing  to  speak 
of  an  object  in  the  third  person,  speak  to  it  in  the  second 
person. 


FIG  URES— PERSON  IFIC  A  TION.  175 

In  Apostrophe  we  address  the  absent  as  though  present,  the  in- 
animate as  though  animate,  the  dead  as  though  living. 
Apostrophe  indicates  usually  a  high  degree  of  excitement. 

Thus  King  David,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Absalom,  exclaims:  "O,  my  son 
Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  Absalom !  would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom, 
my  son,  my  son ! "  Another  Apostrophe,  more  extended,  and  equally  beautiful, 
is  the  lament  of  David  over  the  death  of  Jonathan.    (2  Sam.  1 :  21-27.) 

Apostrophe  is  not  always  of  this  passionate  character.  It  some- 
times results  from  an  exalted  state  of  the  imagination,  and  in  such 
cases  is  capable  of  being  sustained  through  a  much  longer  passage 
than  when  resulting  from  passionate  emotion.  Byron's  apostrophe 
to  the  ocean  is  an  instance  in  point. 

XI.  PERSONIFICATION. 

Personification  consists  in  attributing  life  to  things  in- 
animate. 

Personification  Distinguishable  from  Apostrophe. — Personification 
and  Apostrophe  often  go  together.  They  are  distinguishable,  how- 
ever. In  Apostrophe,  we  often  address  things  inanimate,  and  when 
we  do  so,  we  necessarily  personify  them;  as  (Jer.  47:  6,)  "O  thou 
sword  of  the  Lord,  how  long  will  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet?  put  up 
thyself  into  thy  scabbard,  rest,  and  be  still."  Here  both  figures 
occur.  The  sword  is  at  the  same  time  addressed  and  personified. 
But  there  may  be  Apostrophe  without  Personification,  as  in  the 
lament  of  David  at  the  death  of  Absalom.  The  object  there  ad- 
dressed being  already  a  person,  of  course  it  cannot  be  personified. 
Personification,  moreover,  may  exist  where  there  is  no  Apostrophe. 
The  object  may  be  spoken  of  as  a  person,  instead  of  being  spoken 
to.  This  kind  of  Personification  is  much  the  most  common  form  of 
the  figure,  and  abounds  in  almost  every  species  of  composition. 

" The  mountains  sing  togetlier,  the  hills  rejoice,  and  clap  their  hands" 

When  Eve  plucked  the  forbidden  fruit  and  ate  it,  Milton  says : 

"  Earth  felt  the  wound ;  and  Nature  from  her  seat 
Sighing,  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe." 

Special  Facilities  in  English.  —  We  have  in  English  special  facili- 
ties for  the  use  of  this  figure,  in  consequence  of  the  peculiarity  of 
our  language  in  regard  to  gender.     In  most  languages,  masculine 


176  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

and  feminine  are  attributed  indiscriminately  to  animate  and  inani- 
mate objects,  to  persons  and  to  things.  In  Latin,  for  instance,  the 
words  for  ocean,  river,  mountain,  garden,  and  field,  are  masculine ; 
the  words  for  island,  tree,  moon,  star,  night,  and  light,  are  feminine. 
But  in  English,  the  masculine  and  feminine  genders  are  limited  to 
living  beings  that  have  sex,  and  the  masculine  and  feminine  pronouns 
are  used  only  in  reference  to  such  beings,  that  is,  to  persons  and  the 
more  distinguished  animals.  Hence  the  use  of  these  pronouns  is 
always  associated  with  the  idea  of  personality.  In  the  sentence, 
"  Nature  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe,"  the  feminine 
pronoun  gives  notice  \o  us  that  Nature  is  personified.  In  this  way, 
by  simply  using  the  masculine  and  feminine  pronouns  in  reference 
to  inanimate  objects,  we  may  at  any  time  produce  a  lower  species  of 
personification,  and  thus  give  a  slight  elevation  to  the  style. 

"The  sun  rose  in  his  splendor." 

"Religion  sheds  upon  us  her  benign  influence." 

Personification  is  of  various  degrees. 

The  lowest  form  of  Personification  is  that  produced  by  adjectives. 
In  this  form,  the  qualities  of  living  beings  are  ascribed  to  inanimate 
objects. 

We  speak  of  a  raging  storm,  a  deceitful  disease,  a  cruel  disaster,  a  dying  lamp, 
the  smiling  year,  the  thirsty  ground. 

A  form  of  Personification  somewhat  higher  than  the  foregoing  is 
that  produced  by  verbs.  In  this  form,  inanimate  objects  are  intro- 
duced as  performing  the  actions  of  living  beings. 

"  The  mountains  and  the  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  singing,  and  all 
the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands."    (Isa.  55 :  12.) 

These  two  lower  kinds  of  Personification  are  a  species  of  Meta- 
phor. They  may  be  used  when  there  is  only  a  slight  degree  of 
elevation  above  the  ordinary  tenor  of  discourse. 

The  third  and  highest  form  of  Personification  is  that  in  which  it 
is  combined  with  Apostrophe.  In  such  a  case,  an  inanimate  object 
is  personified,  and  is  at  the  same  time  addressed. 

"  Put  on  thy  strength,  O  Zion ;  put  on  thy  beautiful  garments,  O  Jerusalem, 
the  holy  city."    (Isa.  52:  1.) 

A  fine  example  of  this  occurs  in  Wordsworth's  Song  at  the  Feast 
of  Brougham  Castle: 


FIGURES— HYPERBOLE.  177 

Armour  rusting  in  his  halls 

On  the  blood  of  Clifford  calls;  — 

"Quell  the  Scot,"  exclaims  the  Lance; 

"Bear  me  to  the  heart  of  France," 

Is  the  longing  of  the  Shield, 

"  Tell  thy  name,  thou  trembling  field : 

Field  of  death,  where'er  thou  be, 

Grace  them  with  our  victory !"  etc. 

This  highest  form  of  the  figure  should  be  used  only  in  cases  of 
strong  emotion. 

XII.  HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole  is  exaggeration.  It  consists  in  representing 
things  to  be  either  greater  or  less,  better  or  worse,  than  they 
really  are.  The  object  of  Hyperbole  is  to  make  the  thought 
more  effective  by  overstating  it. 

Not  to  be  taken  literally. —  This  overstatement  is  not  intended  to 
be  accepted  as  literally  true,  any  more  than  metaphors  and  personi- 
fications are  to  be  accepted  as  true;  but  it  shows  that  the  writer  or 
speaker  is  strongly  impressed  with  the  object,  and  it  makes  thereby 
a  correspondingly  strong  impression  on  us. 

Example* — When  we  read  of"  waves  mountain  high"  we  know  that  no  waves 
ever  reached  that  altitude,  and  yet  we  get  from  the  expression  a  better  idea  of 
the  effect  of  the  storm  upon  the  shipwrecked  mariner  than  if  he  had  stated  the 
exact  height  of  the  waves  in  feet  and  inches. 

Caution. —  In  order  that  Hyperbole  may  be  used  with  proper  ef- 
fect, care  must  be  taken  not  to  go  into  extravagance  of  expression. 
In  that  case  the  effect  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  what  the  writer  de- 
sires. Unless  the  reader  is  prepared  for  the  strong  expressions  by 
what  has  gone  before,  and  is  himself  somewhat  excited,  the  Hyper- 
bole is  received  as  mere  rant  and  bombast. 

A  Distinction  is  to  be  observed  also  between  Hyperbole  produced 
by  the  imagination  and  that  produced  by  passion.  The  former  is 
comparatively  feeble  and  moderate.  The  latter  admits  of  much 
greater  exaggeration  in  the  language.  A  man,  too,  when  speaking 
in  his  own  proper  person,  and  expressing  his  own  feelings  and  emo- 
tions, may  use  much  more  exaggerated  language  than  another  would 
in  speaking  of  him.  The  language  of  action,  in  other  words,  may 
be  much  stronger  than  the  language  of  description.  Hence  Hyper- 
bole is  especially  allowable  in  Dramatic  poetry  and  in  Oratory,  and 

M 


178  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Dowhere  do  we  find  better  and  bolder  specimens  of  it  than  in  Shake- 
speare. 

Hyperbole  is  much  used  in  burlesque.  The  exaggeration  of  what 
is  ludicrous  in  any  object  adds  to  the  effect.  Voltaire  says  very 
wittily  of  the  English,  that  they  "gain  two  hours  a  day  by  clipping 
words."  He  refers  to  the  habit  of  saying  can't  for  can  not,  don't 
for  do  not,  and  other  like  abbreviations. 

The  Hyperbole  in  which  school-girls  indulge  in  common  conversa- 
tion might  perhaps  be  excused  as  harmless  trifling,  did  it  not  too 
often  lead  to  a  settled  habit  of  using  language  in  this  loose  manner. 
The  woman  continues  the  extravagant  phrases  of  the  girl, —  is  aw- 
fully tired,  adores  sweet-potatoes,  has  a  splendid  mince-pie  for 
dinner,  a  gorgeous  bonnet,  a  magnificent  pair  of  gloves,  and  num- 
berless other  absurdities  of  the  same  sort. 

xin.  IRONY. 

Irony  consists  in  ridiculing  an  object  under  a  pretence  of 
praising  it.  The  language  in  its  literal  acceptation  is  exactly 
the  opposite  of  what  the  author  means.  The  true  meaning 
is  indicated  mainly  by  the  tone  of  the  voice,  the  words  being 
spoken  with  a  sneer,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  a  figure 
of  Elocution.  But  there  is  always  in  such  cases  something 
either  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  or  in  the  attendant 
circumstances,  to  show  that  the  words  are  to  be  taken  ironi- 
cally, not  literally. 

Irony  is  a  very  effective  weapon  of  attack,  the  form  of  the  lan- 
guage being  such  as  scarcely  to  admit  of  reply. 

The  Bible  contains  some  striking  examples  of  Irony.  Job  says (12:  2),  "No 
doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  shall  die  with  you ! "  Elijah  (1  Kings 
17 :  27)  says  tauntingly  to  the  priests  of  Baal,  "  Cry  aloud :  for  he  is  a  god ;  either 
he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth, 
and  must  be  waked ! " 

Cicero  calls  Verres,  who  was  notorious  for  his  rapacity,  "  The  upright  and 
honest  prsetor  of  Sicily ! " 

A  common  neglect  in  the  training  of  children  is  thus  ridiculed :  "  Although  I 
would  have  you  early  instil  into  your  children's  hearts  the  love  of  cruelty,  yet 
by  no  means  call  it  by  its  true  name,  but  encourage  them  in  it  under  the  name 
of  fun." 

Antony's  speech  over  the  dead  body  of  Cassar,  in  the  play  of 


FIGURES— EXAMPLES.  179 

Julius  CaBsar,  contains  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Irony  to 
be  found  anywhere : 

"  Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, 
(For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man, 
So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men,) 
Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar's  funeral. 
He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me : 
But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious; 
And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man." 


Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  passages  which  follow  contain  figures  of  various  kinds.  The  student  is 
required  first  to  point  out  and  analyze  the  figure  or  figures  in  each  passage,  and 
then  to  express  the  meaning  in  plain  language  without  figure.] 

1.  Government  patronage  should  not  be  so  dispensed  as  to  train 
up  a  population  to  the  one  pursuit  of  boring  gimlet-holes  into  the 
treasury,  and  then  of  seeking  to  enlarge  them,  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
into  auger-holes. — New-  York  Tribune. 

2.  For  we  know  that  if  our  earthly  house  of  this  tabernacle  were 
dissolved,  we  have  a  building  of  God,  a  house  not  made  with  hands, 
eternal  in  the  heavens.  For  in  this  we  groan,  earnestly  desiring  to 
be  clothed  upon  with  our  house  which  is  from  heaven.  —  2  Cor.  5 : 
1-3. 

3.  If  any  man  among  you  seemeth  to  be  religious,  and  bridleth 
not  his  tongue,  but  deceiveth  his  own  heart,  this  man's  religion  is 
vain. — James  1 :  26. 

4.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day  that  the  mountains  shall 
drop  down  new  wine,  and  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk. —  Joel 
3:  18. 

5.  Poor  Soul,  the  centre  of  my  sinful  earth, 

Fool'd  by  those  rebel  powers  that  thee  array, 
Why  dost  thou  pine  within  and  suffer  dearth, 

Painting  thy  outward  walls  so  costly  gay? 
"Why  so  large  cost,  having  so  short  a  lease, 

Dost  thou  upon  thy  fading  mansion  spend? 
Shall  worms,  inheritors  of  this  excess, 

Eat  up  thy  charge?  is  this  thy  body's  end? — Shakespeare. 

6.  When  Israel  went  out  of  Egypt,  the  house  of  Jacob  from  a 
people  of  strange  language,  Judah  was  his  sanctuary,  and  Israel  his 
dominion.    The  sea  saw  it,  and  fled :  Jordan  was  driven  back.    The 


180  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  lambs.  What 
aileth  thee,  O  thou  sea,  that  thou  fleddest?  thou  Jordan,  that  thou 
wast  driven  back  ?  ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipped  like  rams,  and  ye 
little  hills,  like  lambs?  Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  the  presence  of  the 
Lord,  at  the  presence  of  the  God  of  Jacob. — P«.  114:  1-7. 

7.  Ye  are  our  epistle  written  in  our  hearts,  known  and  read  of  all 
men.— 2  Cor.  3:  2. 

8.  My  hopes  and  fears 
Start  up  alarm'd,  and  o'er  life's  narrow  verge 

Look  down  —  on  what?     A  fathomless  abyss. — Young. 

9.  Thrice  unhappy  he  who,  being  born  to  see  things  as  they 
might  be,  is  schooled  by  circumstances  to  see  them  as  people  say 
they  are, —  to  read  God  in  a  prose  translation.  Such  was  Dryden's 
lot,  and  such,  for  a  good  part  of  his  days,  it  was  by  his  own  choice. 
He  who  was  of  a  stature  to  snatch  the  torch  of  life  that  flashes 
from  lifted  hand  to  hand  along  the  generations,  over  the  heads 
of  inferior  men,  chose  rather  to  be  a  link-boy  to  the  stews. — 
Lowell. 

10.  Strange  cozenage!   none  would  live  past  years  again, 
Yet  all  hope  pleasure  in  what  yet  remain, 

And  from  the  dregs  of  life  think  to  receive 

What  the  first  sprightly  running  could  not  give. — Dryden. 

11.  The  "first  sprightly  running"  of  Dryden's  vintage  was,  it 
must  be  confessed,  a  little  muddy,  if  not  beery ;  but  if  his  own  soil 
did  not  produce  grapes  of  the  choicest  flavor,  he  knew  where  they 
were  to  be  had ;  and  his  product,  like  sound  wine,  grew  better  the 
longer  it  stood  upon  the  lees. — Lowell. 

12.  Each  moment  has  its  sickle,  emulous 

Of  Time's  enormous  scythe,  whose  ample  sweep 
Strikes  empires  from  the  root:   each  moment  plays 
His  little  weapon  in  the  narrower  sphere 
Of  sweet  domestic  comfort,  and  cuts  down 
The  fairest  bloom  of  sublunary  bliss. —  Young. 

13.  Zeal  and  duty  are  not  slow, 

But  on  occasion's  forelock  watchful  wait. — Milton. 

14.  We  always  feel  his  [Dryden's]  epoch  in  him,  that  he  was  the 
lock  which  let  our  language  down  from  its  point  of  highest  poetry 
to  its  level  of  easiest  and  most  gentle  flowing  prose. — Lowell. 


FIG  URES— EXAMPLES.  181 

15.  To-day  is  so  like  yesterday,  it  cheats; 

We  take  the  lying  sister  for  the  same. —  Young. 

16.  If  is  [Dryden's]  contemporary,  Dr.  Heylin,  said  of  French 
cooks,  that  "  their  trade  was  not  to  feed  the  belly,  but  the  palate." 
Dryden  was  a  great  while  in  learning  this  secret,  as  available  in 
good  writing  as  in  cookery.  He  strove  after  it,  but  his  thoroughly 
English  nature,  to  the  last,  would  too  easily  content  itself  with  serv- 
ing up  the  honest  beef  of  his  thought,  without  regard  to  daintiness 
or  flavor  in  the  dressing  of  it.  Of  the  best  English  poetry,  it  might 
be  said  that  it  is  understanding  aerated  by  imagination.  In  Dryden 
the  solid  part  too  often  refused  to  mix  kindly  with  the  leaven,  either 
remaining  lumpish  or  rising  to  a  hasty  puffiness.  — Lowell. 

17.  Truth,  crush'd  to  earth,  shall  rise  again; 

The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers; 
But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain, 
And  dies  among  its  worshippers.  —  Bryant. 

18.  In  his  [Dryden's]  prose  you  come  upon  passages  that  per- 
suade you  he  is  a  poet,  in  spite  of  his  verses  so  often  turning  state's 
evidence  against  him  as  to  convince  you  he  is  none.  He  is  a  prose- 
writer,  with  a  kind  of  iEolian  attachment.  —  Lowell. 

19.  Hast  thou  no  friend  to  set  thy  mind  abroach? 

Good  sense  will  stagnate.     Thoughts,  shut  up,  want  air, 
And  spoil,  like  bales  unopened  to  the  sun.  —  Young. 

20.  The  smoothness  of  too  many  rhymed  pentameters  is  that  of 
thin  ice  over  shallow  water :  so  long  as  we  glide  along  rapidly,  all 
is  well ;  but  if  we  dwell  a  moment  on  any  one  spot,  we  may  find 
ourselves  knee-deep  in  mud.  —  Lowell. 

21.  Thought  in  the  mine  may  come  forth  gold  or  dross; 
When  coin'd  in  words  we  know  its  real  worth.  —  Young. 

22.  He  began  his  dramatic  career,  as  usual,  by  rowing  against  the 
strong  current  of  his  nature,  and  pulled  only  the  more  doggedly  the 
more  he  felt  himself  swept  down  the  stream.  —  Lowell. 

23.  Speech  ventilates  our  intellectual  fire; 
Speech  burnishes  our  mental  magazine; 

Brightens  for  ornament,  and  whets  for  use.  —  Young. 

24.  Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Jest  and  youthful  jollity, 

16 


182  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Quibs,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles, 

Nods,  and  becks,  and  wreathed  smiles, 

Such  as  hang  on  Hebe's  cheek, 

And  love  to  live  in  dimple  sleek : 

Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  derides, 

And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides.  —  Milton. 

25.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate, 

All  but  the  page  prescribed  their  present  state.  —  Pope. 

26.  I  should  say  that  Dryden  is  more  apt  to  dilate  our  fancy  than 
our  thought,  as  great  poets  have  the  gift  of  doing.  But  if  he  have 
not  the  potent  alchemy  that  transmutes  the  lead  of  our  common- 
place associations  into  gold,  as  Shakespeare  knows  how  to  do  so 
easily,  yet  his  sense  is  always  up  to  the  sterling  standard;  and 
though  he  has  not  added  so  much  as  some  have  done  to  the  stock 
of  bullion  which  others  afterwards  coin  and  put  in  circulation,  there 
are  few  who  have  minted  so  many  phrases  that  are  still  a  part  of 
our  daily  currency.  —  Lowell. 

27.  The  spider's  most  attenuated  web 

Is  cord  —  is  cable  to  man's  tender  tie 

Of  earthly  bliss ;  it  breaks  at  every  breeze.  —  Young. 

28.  Weariness 

Can  snore  upon  the  flint,  when  resty  sloth 
Finds  the  down-pillow  hard.  —  Shakespeare. 

29.  Her  tresses,  loose  behind, 

Play  on  her  neck,  and  wanton  in  the  wind; 
The  rising  blushes  which  her  cheek  o'erspread 
Are  opening  roses  in  the  lily's  bed.  —  Gay. 

30.  There  are  whole  veins  of  diamonds  in  thine  eyes, 

Might  furnish  crowns  for  all  the  queens  of  earth. — Bailey. 

81.  Faith  builds  a  bridge  across  the  gulf  of  death.  —  Young. 

32.  Who  builds  his  hope  in  air  of  your  good  looks, 
Lives  like  a  drunken  sailor  on  a  mast; 
Ready,  with  every  nod,  to  tumble  down 

Into  the  fatal  bowels  of  the  deep.  —  Shakespeare. 

33.  For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels, 
nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to 
come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature  shall  be  able  to 


FIGURES— EXAMPLES.  183 

separate  us  from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord. 
—  Romans  8 :  38,  39. 

34.  The  soul's  dark  cottage,  battered  and  decayed, 

Lets  in  new  light  through  chinks  that  Time  has  made. 

Waller. 

35.  I  scarcely  understand  my  own  intent; 

But,  silk-worm  like,  so  long  within  have  wrought, 
That  I  am  lost  in  my  own  web  of  thought.  —  Dry  den. 

36.  One  sally  of  a  hero's  soul, 
Does  all  the  military  art  control. 

While  timorous  wit  goes  round,  or  fords  the  shore, 

He  shoots  the  gulf,  and  is  already  o'er, 

And,  when  the  enthusiastic  fit  is  spent, 

Looks  back  amazed  at  what  he  underwent.  —  Dry  den. 

37.  Who  shall  lay  anything  to  the  charge  of  God's  elect?  It  is 
God  that  justifieth.  Who  is  he  that  condemneth  ?  It  is  Christ  that 
died,  yea  rather,  that  is  risen  again,  who  is  even  at  the  right  hand 
of  God,  who  also  maketh  intercession  for  us.  Who  shall  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  Christ  ?  shall  tribulation,  or  distress,  or  persecution, 
or  famine,  or  nakedness,  or  peril,  or  sword  ?  —  Romans  8 :  33-35. 

38.  Our  Garrick's  a  salad,  for  in  him  we  see 
Oil,  vinegar,  sugar,  and  saltness  agree. 

39.  Words  are  the  common  property  of  all  men,  yet  from  words 
those  architects  of  immortality  pile  up  temples  that  shall  outlive 
pyramids:  the  leaf  of  the  papyrus  shall  become  a  Shinar,  stately 
with  towers,  round  which  the  Deluge  of  ages  roars  in  vain. 

40.  And  yet  the  soul,  shut  up  in  her  dark  room, 
Viewing  so  clear  abroad,  at  home  sees  nothing; 
But  like  a  mole  in  earth,  busy  and  blind, 
Works  all  her  folly  up  and  casts  it  outward 

In  the  world's  open  view.  —  Dry  den. 

41.  But  after  all,  he  [Dryden]  is  best  upon  a  level,  —  table-land, 
it  is  true,  and  a  very  high  level,  but  still  somewhere  between  the 
loftier  peaks  of  inspiration  and  the  plain  of  every-day  life. —  Lowell. 

42.  Of  no  distemper,  of  no  blast  he  died, 

But  fell  like  autumn  fruit  that  mellowed  long, 
E'en  wondered  at  because  he  dropt  no  sooner; 
Fate  seemed  to  wind  him  up  for  fourscore  years; 


184  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

Yet  freshly  ran  he  on  ten  winters  more, 

Till,  like  a  clock  worn  out  with  eating  Time, 

The  wheels  of  weary  life  at  last  stood  still.  —  Lh'yden, 

43.  For  I  am  now  so  sunk  from  what  I  was, 
Thou  find'st  me  at  my  lowest  water-mark. 
The  rivers  that  ran  in  and  raised  my  fortunes 
Are  all  dried  up,  or  take  another  course ; 
What  I  have  left  is  from  my  native  spring; 

I  've  a  heart  still  that  swells  in  scorn  of  Fate, 
And  lifts  me  to  my  banks. — Dry  den. 

44.  Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  hook?  or  his  tongue 
with  a  cord  which  thou  lettest  down?  Canst  thou  put  a  hook  in  his 
nose?  or  bore  his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn  ?  will  he  make  many 
supplications  unto  thee?  will  he  speak  soft  words  unto  thee?  will 
he  make  a  covenant  with  thee?  wilt  thou  take  him  for  a  servant  for- 
ever? wilt  thou  play  with  him  as  with  a  bird?  or  wilt  thou  bind 
him  for  thy  maidens?  shall  the  companions  make  a  banquet  of  him? 
shall  they  part  him  among  the  merchants?  canst  thou  fill  his  skin 
with  barbed  irons?  or  his  head  with  fish-spears?  —  Job  41 :  1-7. 

45.  I  do  not  like  to  say  it,  but  he  has  sometimes  smothered  the 
child-like  simplicity  of  Chaucer  under  feather-beds  of  verbiage. — 
Lowell. 

4G.  His  [Dryden's]  phrase  is  always  a  short-cut  to  his  sense,  for  his 
estate  was  too  spacious  for  him  to  need  that  trick  of  winding  the 
path  of  his  thought  about,  and  planting  it  out  with  clumps  of  epithet 
by  which  the  landscape-gardeners  of  literature  give  to  a  paltry  half- 
acre  the  air  of  a  park.  —  Lowell. 

47.  If  circumstances  could  ever  make  a  great  national  poet,  here 
were  all  the  elements  mingled  at  melting-heat  in  the  alembic,  and 
the  lucky  moment  of  projection  was  clearly  come.  —  Lowell. 

48.  Above  all,  we  may  esteem  it  lucky  that  he  [Shakespeare]  found 
words  ready  to  his  use,  original  and  untarnished, — types  of  thought, 
whose  sharp  edges  were  unworn  by  repeated  impressions. —  Lowell. 

49.  There  is  much  that  is  deciduous  in  books,  but  all  that  gives 
them  a  title  to  rank  as  literature  in  the  highest  sense  is  perennial. — 
Lowell. 

50.  Am  I  not  an  apostle  ?  am  I  not  free  ?  have  I  not  seen  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord  ?  are  not  ye  ray  work  in  the  Lord  ?  have  wo  not 


FIGURES— EXAMPLES.  185 

power  to  eat  and  to  drink  ?  have  we  not  power  to  lead  about  a  sister, 
a  wife,  as  well  as  other  apostles,  and  as  the  brethren  of  the  Lord, 
and  Cephas?  Or  I  only  and  Barnabas,  have  not  we  power  to  forbear 
working?  Who  goeth  a  warfare  any  time  at  his  own  charges?  who 
planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof?  or  who 
feedeth  a  flock,  and  eateth  not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock  ?  Say  I  these 
things  as  a  man,  or  saith  not  the  law  the  same  also  ?  —  ICor.  9 :  1-8. 

51.  Still  thy  love,  O  Christ  arisen, 
Yearns  to  reach  these  souls  in  prison: 
Through  all  depths  of  sin  and  loss 
Drops  the  plummet  of  thy  Cross! 
Never  yet  abyss  was  found 

Deeper  than  that  Cross  could  sound. 

52.  There  are  some  thinkers  about  whom  we  always  feel  easy, 
because  they  never  have  a  thought  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be 
made  uncomfortable  by  its  possession. 

53.  Save  me,  O  God !  for  the  waters  are  come  into  my  soul.  I 
sink  in  deep  mire,  where  there  is  no  standing :  I  am  come  into  deep 
waters,  where  the  floods  overflow  me. — Ps.  69 :  1,  2. 

54.  As  smoke  is  driven  away,  so  drive  them  away:  as  wax  melteth 
before  the  fire,  so  let  the  wicked  perish  at  the  presence  of  God.  — 
Ps.  68 :  2. 

55.  We  do  not  mean  what  is  technically  called  a  living  language, — 
the  contrivance,  hollow  as  a  speaking-trumpet,  by  which  breathing 
and  moving  bipeds,  even  now,  sailing  o'er  life's  solemn  main,  are 
enabled  to  hail  each  other  and  make  known  their  mutual  shortness 
of  mental  stores, —  but  one  that  is  still  hot  from  the  hearts  and 
brains  of  a  people,  not  hardened  yet,  but  moltenly  ductile  to  new 
shapes  of  sharp  and  clear  relief  in  the  moulds  of  new  thoughts. — 
Lowell. 

56.  What  was  of  greater  import,  no  arbitrary  line  had  been  drawn 
between  high  words  and  low ;  vulgar  then  meant  simply  what  was 
common ;  poetry  had  not  been  aliened  from  the  people  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  Upper  House  of  vocables,  alone  entitled  to  move  in 
the  stately  ceremonials  of  verse,  and  privileged  from  arrest  while 
they  forever  keep  the  promise  of  meaning  to  the  ear  and  break  it  to 
the  sense. — Lowell. 

57.  I  by  no  means  intend  to  say  that  he  [Shakespeare]  did  not 
enrich  it  [the  language],  or  that  any  inferior  man  could  have  dipped 

16* 


186  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

the  same  words  out  of  the  great  poet's  inkstand.  But  lie  enriched 
it  only  by  the  natural  expansion  and  exhilaration  of  which  it  was 
conscious,  in  yielding  to  the  mastery  of  a  genius  that  could  turn  and 
wind  it  like  a  fiery  Pegasus,  making  it  feel  its  life  in  every  limb. — 
Lowell. 

58.  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so  panteth  my 
soul  after  thee,  O  God.  —  Pa.  42 :  1. 

59.  Stand  therefore,  having  your  loins  girt  about  with  truth,  and 
having  on  the  breast-plate  of  righteousness,  and  your  feet  shod  with 
the  preparation  of  the  gospel  of  peace ;  above  all,  taking  the  shield 
of  faith,  wherewith  ye  shall  be  able  to  quench  all  the  fiery  darts  of 
the  wicked.  And  take  the  helmet  of  salvation,  and  the  sword  of 
the  Spirit,  which  is  the  word  of  God.  —  Ephes.  6:  14-17. 

60.  Scarce  one  [commentator  on  Shakespeare]  but  thought  he  could 
gauge  like  an  ale-firkin  that  intuition  whose  edging  shallows  may 
have  been  sounded,  but  whose  abysses,  stretching  down  amid  the 
sunless  roots  of  Being  and  Consciousness,  mock  the  plummet. — 
Lowell. 

61.  The  Gothic  Shakespeare  often  superimposed  upon  the  slender 
column  of  a  single  word,  that  seems  to  twist  under  it,  but  does  not, 
—  like  the  quaint  shafts  in  cloisters, —  a  weight  of  meaning  which 
the  modern  architects  of  sentences  would  consider  wholly  unjustifi- 
able by  correct  principle.  —  Lowell. 

62.  His  [Wordsworth's]  longer  poems  are  Egyptian  sand-wastes, 
with  here  and  there  an  oasis  of  exquisite  greenery,  a  grand  image 
Sphinx-like,  half  buried  in  drifting  commonplaces,  or  the  solitary 
Pompey's  Pillar  of  some  towering  thought.  —  Lowell. 

63.  Her  angel's  face, 

As  the  great  eye  of  heaven,  shined  bright, 

And  made  a  sunshine  in  the  shady  place; 

Did  never  mortal  eye  behold  such  heavenly  grace. — Spenser. 

64.  "Who  has  so  succeeded  in  imitating  him  [Shakespeare]  as  to 
remind  us  of  him  by  even  so  much  as  the  gait  of  a  single  verse? 
Those  magnificent  crystallizations  of  feeling  and  phrase,  basaltic 
masses,  molten  and  interfused  by  the  primal  fires  of  passion,  are  not 
to  be  reproduced  by  the  slow  experiments  of  the  laboratory  striving 
to  parody  creation  with  artifice.  —  Lowell. 

65.  Love  is  the  ladder  on  which  we  climb 
To  a  likeness  with  God. 


FIG  URES— EXAMPLES.  187 

66.  Onions  that  should  water  this  grief.  —  Shakespeare. 

67.  I,  writing  thus,  am  still  what  men  call  young; 
I  have  not  so  far  left  the  coasts  of  life 

To  travel  inland,  that  I  cannot  hear 

That  murmur  of  the  water  infinite 

Which  unweaned  babies  smile  at  in  their  sleep, 

When  wondered  at  for  smiling. — Mrs.  Browning. 

68.  Shakespeare  does  not  always  speak  in  that  intense  way  that 
flames  up  in  Lear  and  Macbeth  through  the  rifts  of  a  soil  volcanic 
with  passion.  He  allows  us  here  and  there  the  repose  of  a  common- 
place character,  the  consoling  distraction  of  a  humorous  one.  He 
knows  how  to  be  equable  and  grand  without  effort,  so  that  we 
forget  the  altitude  of  thought  to  which  he  has  led  us,  because  the 
slowly  receding  slope  of  a  mountain  stretching  downward  by  ample 
gradations  gives  a  less  startling  impression  of  height  than  to  look 
over  the  edge  of  a  ravine  that  makes  but  a  wrinkle  in  its  flank. — 
Lowell. 

69.  The  language  [in  Shakespeare's  time]  was  still  fresh  from  those 
sources  at  too  great  a  distance  from  which  it  becomes  fit  only  for 
the  service  of  prose.  Wherever  he  dipped,  it  came  up  clear  and 
sparkling,  undefiled  as  yet  by  the  drainage  of  literary  factories,  or 
of  those  dye-houses  where  the  machine-woven  fabrics  of  sham  cul- 
ture are  colored  up  to  the  last  desperate  style  of  sham  sentiment. — 
Lowell. 

70.  With  Shakespeare  the  plot  is  an  interior  organism,  in  Jonson 
an  external  contrivance.  It  is  the  difference  between  man  and  tor- 
toise. In  the  one  the  osseous  structure  is  out  of  sight,  indeed,  but 
sustains  the  flesh  and  blood  that  envelop  it,  while  the  other  is  boxed 
up  and  imprisoned  in  his  bones.  —  Lowell. 

71.  The  mountains  saw  thee,  and  they  trembled:  the  overflow- 
ing of  the  water  passed  by :  the  deep  uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up 
his  hands  on  high. — HdbaTchuh  3  :  10. 

72.  The  depth  saith,  It  is  not  in  me :  and  the  sea  saith,  It  is  not 
with  me.— Job  28 :  14. 

73.  In  truth,  we  are  under  a  deception  similar  to  that  which  mis- 
leads the  traveller  in  the  Arabian  desert.  Beneath  the  caravan,  all 
is  dry  and  bare ;  but  far  in  advance,  and  far  in  the  rear,  is  the  sem- 
blance of  refreshing  waters.  The  pilgrims  hasten  forward,  and  find 
nothing  but  sand  where,  an  hour  before,  they  had  seen  a  lake. 


188  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

They  turn  their  eyes,  and  see  a  lake  where,  an  hour  before,  they 
were  toiling  through  sand. — Macaulay. 

74.  For  weeks  the  clouds  had  raked  the  hills 

And  vexed  the  vales  with  raining, 
And  all  the  woods  were  sad  with  mist, 

And  all  the  brooks  complaining. 
At  last,  a  sudden  night-storm  tore 

The  mountain-veils  asunder, 
And  swept  the  valleys  clean  before 

The  besom  of  the  thunder. —  Whittier. 

75.  In  such  slipshod  housekeeping  men  are  their  own  largest 
creditors;  they  find  it  easy  to  stave  off  utter  bankruptcy  of  con- 
science by  taking  up  one  unpaid  promise  with  another  larger,  and  at 
heavier  interest,  till  such  self-swindling  becomes  habitual  and  by 
degrees  almost  painless.  How  did  Coleridge  discount  his  own  notes 
of  this  kind  with  less  and  less  specie  as  the  figures  lengthen  on  the 
paper ! — Lowell. 

76.  [Such  characters]  cannot  determine  on  any  course  of  action, 
because  they  are  always,  as  it  were,  standing  at  the  cross-roads,  and 
see  too  well  the  disadvantages  of  every  one  of  them.  It  is  not  that 
they  are  incapable  of  resolve,  but  somehow  the  band  between  the 
motive  power  and  the  operative  faculties  is  relaxed  and  loose.  The 
engine  works,  but  the  machinery  it  should  drive  stands  still.  — 
Lowell. 

77.  Horatio  is  the  only  complete  man  in  the  play — solid,  well- 
knit,  and  true ;  a  noble,  quiet  nature,  with  that  highest  of  all  qual- 
ities, judgment,  always  sane  and  prompt;  who  never  drags  his 
anchors  for  any  wind  of  opinion  or  fortune,  but  grips  all  the  closer 
to  the  reality  of  things. — Lowell. 

78.  Hamlet  is  continually  drawing  bills  on  the  future,  secured  by 
his  promise  of  himself  to  himself,  which  he  can  never  redeem. — 
Lowell. 

79.  I  wake,  emerging  from  a  sea  of  dreams 
Tumultuous,  where  my  wreck'd,  desponding  thought 
From  wave  to  wave  of  fancied  misery 

At  random  drove,  her  helm  of  reason  lost. —  Young, 

80.  Night, 
E'en  in  the  zenith  of  her  dark  domain, 

Is  sunshine  to  the  color  of  my  fate.—  Young, 


FIGURES—  EX  A  MPL  ES.  189 

81.  Deep  on  his  front  engraven 
Deliberation  sat,  and  public  care. — Milton. 

82.  Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseased; 
Pluck  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow; 
Raze  out  the  written  tablets  of  the  brain; 
Cleanse  the  foul  bosom  of  that  perilous  stuff, 
Which  weighs  upon  the  heart?  —  Shakespeare. 

83.  Let  come  what  will,  I  mean  to  bear  it  out, 
And  either  live  with  glorious  victory, 

Or  die  with  fame,  renowned  for  chivalry. 

He  is  not  worthy  of  the  honey-comb, 

That  shuns  the  hive  because  the  bees  have  stung. 

Shakespeare. 

84.  My  May  of  life 

Is  fallen  into  the  sere,  the  yellow  leaf. — Shakespeare. 

85.  'T  is  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches :   none 
Are  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own. — Pope. 

86.  Self  is  the  medium  least  refined  of  all, 
Through  which  opinion's  searching  beams  can  fall; 
And,  passing  there,  the  clearest,  steadiest  ray 

Will  tinge  its  light,  and  turn  its  line  astray. — Moore. 

87.  His  tongue 
Dropp'd  manna,  and  could  make  the  worst  appear 
The  better  reason,  to  perplex  and  dash 
Maturest  counsels. — Milton. 

88.  Here  rills  of  oily  eloquence  in  soft 

Meanders  lubricate  the  course  they  take. — Cowper. 

89.  Oh!   as  the  bee  upon  the  flower,  I  hang 

Upon  the  honey  of  thy  eloquent  tongue. — Bulwer. 

90.  'Tis  an  old  maxim  in  the  schools, 
That  flattery 's  the  fool  of  fools ; 
Yet  now  and  then  your  men  of  wit 
Will  condescend  to  take  a  bit. — Swift. 

91.  I've  touched  the  highest  point  of  all  my  greatness; 
And  from  the  full  meridian  of  my  glory 

I  haste  now  to  my  setting. — Shakespeare. 

92.  Of  praise  a  mere  glutton,  he  swallowed  what  came, 
And  the  puff  of  a  dunce,  he  mistook  it  for  fame; 


190  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Till,  his  relish  grown  callous  almost  to  disease, 

Who  pepper'd  the  highest  was  surest  to  please. —  Goldsmith. 

93.  She  looks  as  clear 

As  morning  roses,  newly  washed  in  dew. — Shakespeare. 

94.  Let  our  frail  thoughts  dally  with  false  surmise. — Milton. 

95.  He  cast  off  his  friends  as  a  huntsman  his  pack, 

For  he  knew  when  he  wished  he  could  whistle  them  back. 

Goldsmith. 

96.  Love  is  a  sudden  blaze  which  soon  decays; 
Friendship  is  like  the  sun's  eternal  rays; 
Not  daily  benefits  exhaust  the  flame : 

It  still  is  giving,  and  still  burns  the  same. —  Gay. 

97.  Friendship  is  not  a  plant  of  hasty  growth, 
Though  planted  in  esteem's  deep  fixed  soil; 
The  gradual  culture  of  kind  intercourse 
Must  bring  it  to  perfection. — Joanna  Baillie. 

98.  There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends, 
Rough-hew  them  as  we  will. —  Shakespeare. 

99.  As  some  tall  cliff,  that  lifts  its  awful  form, 

Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm; 
Tho'  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread, 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head. —  Goldsmith. 

100.  To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes. — Gray. 

101.  He,  who  ascends  to  mountain-tops  shall  find 

Their  loftiest  peaks  most  wrapt  in  clouds  and  snow; 
He,  who  surpasses  or  subdues  mankind, 

Must  look  down  on  the  hate  of  those  below. 

Tho'  far  above  the  sun  of  glory  glow, 
And  far  beneath  the  earth  and  ocean  spread, 

Round  him  are  icy-rocks,  and  loudly  blow 
Contending  tempests  on  his  naked  head. —  Byron. 

102.  Whose  game  was  empires,  and  whose  stakes  were  thrones, 
Whose  table  earth,  whose  dice  were  human  bones. — Byron. 

103.  How  oft  when  Paul  has  served  us  with  a  text, 
Has  Plato,  Tully,  Epictetus  preached. 

104.  Ocean  into  tempest  wrought, 

To  waft  a  feather  or  to  drown  a  fly. —  Young. 


FIGURES— EXAMPLES,  191 

105.  O  life,  O  poetry, 
Which  means  life — life!    cognizant  of  life 
Beyond  this  blood-beat, — passionate  for  truth 
Beyond  these  senses, —  poetry,  my  life  — 

My  eagle,  with  both  grappling  feet  still  hot 

From  Zeus's  thunder,  who  has  ravished  me 

Away  from  all  the  shepherds,  sheep,  and  dogs, 

And  set  me  in  the  Olympian  roar  and  round 

Of  luminous  faces,  for  a  cup-bearer, 

To  keep  the  mouths  of  all  the  godheads  moist 

For  everlasting  laughter  —  I,  myself, 

Half  drunk,  across  the  beaker,  with  their  eyes! 

How  those  gods  look !  — Mrs.  Browning.. 

106.  Presence  of  mind  is  greatly  promoted  by  absence*  of  body. 

107.  My  life  is  a  wreck.     I  drift  before  the  chilling  blasts  of  ad- 
versity ;  friends,  home,  wealth  —  I  've  lost  them  all. 

108.  If  in  the  morn  of  life,  you  remember  God,  he  will  not  forget 
you  in  your  old  age. 

109.  Born,  lived,  and  died,  sum  up  the  great  epitome  of  man. 

110.  Turn  it,  and  twist  it  as  much  as  you  can, 
She  will  still  be  double  you  [W]  O  man. 

111.  Men  dying  make  their  wills,  but  wives 

Escape  a  task  so  sad; 
Why  should  they  make  what  all  their  lives 
The  gentle  dames  have  had? 

112.  If  you  blow  your  neighbor's  fire,  don't  complain  if  the  sparks 
fly  in  your  face. 

113.  O  earth,  so  full  of  dreary  noises ! 

O  men,  with  wailing  in  your  voices! 

O  delved  gold,  the  wailers'  heap ! 
O  strife,  O  curse,  that  o'er  it  fall! 
God  makes  a  silence  through  you  all, 

And  "  giveth  his  beloved  sleep." — Mrs.  Browning, 

114.  O  dark  and  cruel  deep,  reveal 
The  secret  that  thy  waves  conceal ! 
And  ye  wild  sea-birds  hither  wheel 
And  tell  it  me. 

115.  I  heard  the  trailing  garments  of  the  Night 

Sweep  thro'  her  marble  halls, 


192  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

I  saw  her  sable  skirts  all  fringed  with  light 
From  the  celestial  walls. — Longfellow. 

116.  May  slighted  woman  turn, 
And  as  the  vine  the  oak  has  shaken  off, 

Bend  lightly  to  the  leaning  trust  again?  —  Willis. 

117.  O'erhead  the  countless  stars 

Like  eyes  of  love  were  beaming, 
Underneath  the  weary  earth 

All  breathless  lay  a-dreaming. 
The  fox-glove  shoots  out  the  green  matted  heather, 

And  hangeth  her  hoods  of  snow, 
She  was  idle  and  slept  till  the  sunshiny  weather, 

But  children  take  longer  to  grow. —  Jean  Ingelow. 

118.  Thoughts  which  fix  themselves  deep  in  the  heart  as  meteor 
stones  in  earth,  dropped  from  some  higher  sphere. 

119.  When  descends  on  the  Atlantic 

The  gigantic 
Storm-wind  of  the  Equinox, 
Landward  in  his  wrath  he  scourges  ■ 

The  toiling  surges 
Laden  with  sea-weeds  from  the  rocks. — Longfellow, 

120.  What  has  the  gray -haired  prisoner  done? 

Has  murder  stained  his  hands  with  gore? 
Not  so,  his  crime  is  a  fouler  one: 

God  made  the  old  man  poor! 
For  this  he  shares  a  felon's  cell, 
The  fittest  earthly  type  of  hell: 
For  this,  the  boon  for  which  he  poured 
His  young  blood  on  the  invader's  sword, 
And  counted  life  the  fearful  cost, 
His  blood-gained  liberty  is  lost. 

121.  They  boast  they  come  but  to  improve  our  state,  enlarge 
our  thoughts,  and  free  us  from  the  yoke  of  error.  Yes,  they  will 
give  enlightened  freedom  to  our  minds,  who  are  themselves  the 
slaves  of  passion,  avarice,  and  pride. 

122.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 
Which  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 

Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head?  —  Shakespeare. 


FIGURES— EXAMPLES.  193 

123.  Flowers  are  stars,  wherein  wondrous  truths  are  made 
manifest. 

124.  The  twilight  hours  like  birds  flew  by, 

As  lightly  and  as  free; 
Ten  thousand  stars  were  in  the  sky, 

Ten  thousand  in  the  sea: 
For  every  wave  with  dimpled  cheek 

That  leaped  upon  the  air, 
Had  caught  a  star  in  its  embrace, 

And  held  it  trembling  there. 

125.  Humor  runs  through  his  speeches  like  violets  in  a  harvest- 
field,  giving  sweet  odor  and  beauty  to  his  task  when  he  stoops  to 
put  in  the  sickle. 

126.  Ignorance  is  the  curse  of  God,  knowledge  the  wing  where- 
with we  fly  to  heaven. —  Shakespeare. 

1271  A  blind  man  is  a  poor  man,  and  blind  a  poor  man  is ;  for 
the  former  seeth  no  man,  and  the  latter  no  man  sees. 

128.  Reflected  in  the  lake,  I  love 

To  see  the  stars  of  evening  glow, 
So  tranquil  in  the  heavens  above, 

So  restless  in  the  wave  below. 
Thus  heavenly  hope  is  all  serene, 

But  earthly  hope,  how  bright  soe'er, 
Still  fluctuates  o'er  this  changing  scene, 

As  false  and  fleeting  as  'tis  fair.  —  Heber. 

129.  Night  dropped  her  sable  curtain  down,  and  pinned  it  with  a  star. 

130.  The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord,  and  blushed. 

131.  The  aspen  heard  them,  and  she  trembled. 

132.  And  silence,  like  a  poultice,  comes 

To  heal  the  blows  of  sound. —  Holmes. 

133.  Her  hair  drooped  down  her  pallid  cheeks, 

Like  sea-weed  on  a  clam. —  Holmes. 

134.  "We  [alumni]  leave,  like  those  volcanic  stones,  our  precious 

Alma  Mater, 
But  will  keep  dropping  in  again  to  see  the  dear  old  crater. 

Holmes, 

135.  Prologues  in  metre  are  to  other  pros 

As  worsted  stockings  are  to  engine-hose. —  Holmes. 
17  N 


194  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

136.  To  thee  it  [death]  is  not 
So  much  even  as  the  lifting  of  a  latch; 
Only  a  step  into  the  open  air 

Out  of  a  tent  already  luminous 

With  light  that  shines  through  its  transparent  walls. 

Longfellow. 

137.  The  burnished  dragon-fly  is  thine  attendant, 

And  tilts  against  the  field, 
And  down  the  listed  sunbeam  rides,  resplendent 
With  steel-blue  mail  and  shield. —  Longfellow. 

138.  The  familiar  lines 

Are  footpaths  for  the  thoughts  of  Italy. 

Longfellow^  Ode  to  Dante. 

139.  And  under  low  brows,  black  with  night, 
Rayed  out  at  times  a  dangerous  light, 

The  sharp  heat-lightning  of  her  face.  —  Whittier. 

140.  It  is  nothing  like  the  grave  irony  of  Socrates,  which  was  the 
weapon  of  a  man  thoroughly  in  earnest,  —  the  boomerang  of  argu- 
ment, which  one  throws  in  the  opposite  direction  of  what  he  means 
to  hit,  and  which  seems  to  be  flying  away  from  the  adversary,  who 
will  presently  find  himself  knocked  down  by  it.  —  Lowell. 

141.  And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 

Shall  fold  their  tents  like  the  Arabs, 
And  as  silently  steal  away.  —  Longfellow. 

142.  He  is  a  close  observer,  continually  analyzing  his  own  nature 
and  that  of  others,  letting  fall  his  little  drops  of  acid  irony  on  all  who 
come  near  him,  to  make  them  show  what  they  are  made  of. — 
Lowell. 

143.  The  day  is  done ;  and  slowly  from  the  scene 
The  stooping  sun  upgathers  his  spent  shafts, 

And  puts  them  back  into  his  golden  quiver.  —  Longfellow. 

144.  The  perpetual  silt  of  some  one  weakness,  the  eddies  of  a  sus- 
picious temper  depositing  their  one  impalpable  layer  after  another, 
may  build  up  a  shoal  on  which  an  heroic  life  and  otherwise  mag- 
nanimous nature  may  bilge  and  go  to  pieces.  —  Lowell. 

145.  The  consecrated  chapel  on  the  crag, 

And  the  white  hamlet  gathered  round  its  base, 
Like  Mary  sitting  at  her  Saviour's  feet, 

And  looking  up  at  his  beloved  face !  —  Longfellow. 


FIG  URES—  EXAMPLES.  195 

146.  Shakespeare  did  not  mean  his  great  tragedies  for  scare- 
crows, as  if  the  nailing  of  one  hawk  to  the  barn-door  would  prevent 
the  next  coming  down  souse  into  the  hen-yard.  No,  it  is  not  the 
poor  bleaching  victim  hung  up  to  moult  its  draggled  feathers  in  the 
rain  that  he  wishes  to  show  us.  He  loves  the  hawk-nature  as  well 
as  the  hen-nature  ;  and  if  he  is  unequalled  in  anything  it  is  in  that 
sunny  breadth  of  view,  that  impregnability  of  reason,  that  looks 
down  upon  all  ranks  and  conditions  of  men,  all  fortune  and  misfor- 
tune, with  the  equal  eye  of  the  pure  artist.  —  Lowell. 

147.  There  through  the  long,  bright  mornings  we  remained, 
Watching  the  noisy  ferry-boat  that  plied 

Like  a  slow  shuttle  through  the  sunny  warp 

Of  threaded  silver  from  a  thousand  brooks, 

That  took  new  beauty  as  it  wound  away. — Holland. 

148.  If,  as  poets  are  wont  to  whine,  the  outward  world  was  cold 
to  him  [Shakespeare],  its  biting  air  did  but  trace  itself  in  loveliest 
frostwork  of  fancy  on  the  many  windows  of  that  self-centred  and 
cheerful  soul.  —  Lowell. 

149.  As  from  a  deep,  dead  sea,  by  drastic  lift 
Of  pent  volcanic  fires,  the  dripping  form 
Of  a  new  island  swells  to  meet  the  air, 
And,  after  months  of  idle  basking,  feels 

The  prickly  feet  of  life  from  countless  germs 

Creeping  along  its  sides,  and  reaching  up 

In  fern  and  flower  to  the  life-giving  sun, 

So  from  my  grief  I  rose,  and  so  at  length 

I  felt  new  life  returning:  so  I  felt 

The  life  already  wakened  stretching  forth 

To  stronger  light  and  purer  atmosphere.  —  Holland. 

150.  When  once  the  shrinking,  dizzy  spell  was  gone, 
I  saw  below  me,  like  a  jewelled  cup, 

The  valley  hollowed  to  its  heaven-kissed  lip  — 
The  serrate  green  against  the  serrate  blue  — 
Brimming  with  beauty's  essence;  palpitant 
With  a  divine  elixir  —  lucent  floods 
Poured  from  the  golden  chalice  of  the  sun, 
At  which  my  spirit  drank  with  conscious  growth, 
And  drank  again  with  still  expanding  scope 
Of  comprehension  and  of  faculty.  —  Holland. 


196  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

151.  In  our  school-books  we  say, 

Of  those  that  held  their  heads  above  the  crowd, 
They  flourished  then  or  there:  but  life  in  him 
Could  scarce  be  said  to  flourish,  only  touch'd 
On  such  a  time  as  goes  before  the  leaf, 
When  all  the  wood  stands  in  a  mist  of  green, 
And  nothing  perfect.  —  Tennyson. 

152.  We  are  puppets,  Man  in  his  pride,  and  Beauty  fair  in  her 

flower : 
Do  we  move  ourselves,  or  are  moved  by  an  unseen  hand,  at 

a  game 
That  pushes  us  off  from  the  board,  and  others  ever  succeed  ? 

Tennyson. 


CHAPTER  V. 
SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE. 

A  Comparison. —  Rhetoric  has  sometimes  been  compared  to  archi- 
tecture. In  this  comparison,  words  are  the  materials  of  which  a 
structure  is  composed,  sentences  are  the  finished  walls,  and  figures 
the  ornaments.  Each  of  these  topics  has  now  been  made  the  sub- 
ject of  a  chapter,  under  the  several  heads  of  Diction,  Sentences, 
and  Figures. 

The  Comparison  Continued. —  The  comparison  may  be  carried  one 
step  farther.  While  the  points  thus  far  named  belong  to  all  build- 
ings, buildings  themselves  are  classified  according  to  their,  several 
styles  of  architecture,  and  according  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are 
intended.  One  is  massive  and  stern,  another  light  and  graceful; 
one  is  Grecian,  another  Gothic ;  one  is  a  temple  for  divine  worship, 
or  a  hall  for  legislation,  another  is  only  a  private  mansion.  Archi- 
tecture, in  other  words,  has  its  styles  suited  to  its  several  occasions, 
though  in  every  style  all  the  points  thus  far  noticed  are  necessary. 
Every  building,  that  has  a  claim  to  be  architectural  at  all,  neces- 
sarily supposes  materials,  walls,  and  means  of  ornament.  But 
beyond  this,  buildings  rapidly  diverge,  and  each  has  something 
peculiar  to  itself  which  others  have  not. 

How  Applied  to  Rhetoric.  —  So  it  is  in  Rhetoric.  Every  kind  of 
composition  requires  words,  sentences,  and  figures.  The  discussion 
of  these  involves  what  may  be  called  the  general  properties  of  style, 
that  is,  those  which  belong  to  every  species  of  composition.  But 
beyond  this,  works  have  special  peculiarities.  Some  works  are  sub- 
lime, some  are  beautiful,  some  witty,  some  humorous.  This  gives 
rise  to  what  may  be  called  the  special  properties  of  style. 

17  *  197 


198  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

The  Special  Properties  of  Style  form  the  next  topic  of  dis- 
cussion. They  will  be  considered  under  the  following  heads: 
Sublimity,  Beauty,  Wit,  and  Humor. 

I.  SUBLIMITY. 

The  highest  commendation  that  can  be  given  to  any  piece 
of  composition,  is  to  say  that  it  is  sublime.  Sublimity,  there- 
fore, is  a  quality  of  style  which  deserves  special  study.  It  is 
important  to  determine  with  some  particularity  both  what  it 
is,  and  how  it  is  to  be  attained. 

I.  What  Constitutes  Sublimity. 

How  we  get  the  Idea. — The  easiest  way  of  getting  a  clear  idea  of 
Sublimity,  as  applied  to  what  is  written  or  spoken,  is  first  to  notice 
what  is  sublime  in  other  things.  The  feeling  of  Sublimity,  as  a 
mental  emotion,  is  perfectly  simple,  and,  like  all  simple  states  of  the 
mind,  incapable  of  definition.  All  we  know  of  the  matter,  on  the 
final  analysis,  isr  that  in  certain  situations  the  mind  experiences  a 
peculiar  elevation,  of  a  pleasurable  kind,  and  that  to  this  mental 
state  we  give  the  name  of  the  Sublime. 

Two  Senses  of  the  Word. — This  term,  the  Sublime,  or  Sublimity,  is 
applied  sometimes  to  the  objects  which  produce  the  feeling,  some- 
times to  the  feeling  itself.  Thus  we  may  say,  "Niagara  is  a  wonder- 
ful instance  of  the  sublime,"  "  Sublimity  is  the  chief  characteristic 
of  Niagara,"  or  we  may  say,  "I  have  an  overpowering  sense  of 
sublimity  (or,  of  the  sublime)  whenever  I  look  upon  Niagara." 

How  Defined. — Although  the  sublime,  as  a  simple  mental  emotion, 
is  incapable  of  definition,  we  can  enumerate  the  several  qualities 
and  circumstances  which,  by  general  consent,  produce  the  feeling, 
and  can  thus  enable  each  one  to  judge  what  the  feeling  is,  by  an 
appeal  to  his  own  consciousness  in  view  of  such  qualities  or  circum- 
stances. 

1.  Vastness. — The  first  circumstance  that  may  be  named 
as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  vastness. 

Examples  of  Vastness.  —  We  have  examples  of  this  in  wide  ex- 
tended plains  to  which  the  eye  can  set  no  limit,  in  the  firmament  of 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— SUBLIMITY.        199 

heaven,  in  the  boundless  expanse  of  the  ocean.  Wherever  space  is 
concerned,  amplitude,  or  greatness  of  extent  in  one  dimension  or 
another,  is  necessary  to  grandeur.  Remove  all  bounds  from  any 
object,  and  you  at  once  render  it  sublime.  Hence,  infinite  space, 
endless  numbers,  and  eternal  duration  always  fill  the  mind  with 
ideas  of  sublimity. 

Direction  of  this  Extent.  —  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  vast  ex- 
tent in  a  horizontal  direction  does  not  affect  the  mind  so  powerfully 
as  an  equal  extent  upwards  or  downwards.  A  spectator  may  ex- 
perience a  feeling  of  grandeur  in  looking  over  a  plain,  stretching  in 
every  direction,  in  unbroken  lines,  twenty,  or  thirty,  or  forty  miles. 
But  his  feeling  would  be  intensified  a  thousand-fold  were  he  to  look 
up  at  a  mountain,  rising  boldly  to  an  equal  height  into  the  skies,  or 
down  over  a  sheer  precipice,  sinking  to  a  like  awful  depth  below. 

The  Firmament.  —  In  the  case  of  the  firmament,  we  have  vastness 
of  extent  in  all  directions.  It  is  the  widest,  the  highest,  the  deepest 
object  in  all  nature.  Hence  its  universal  acceptance  as  a  most  im- 
pressive instance  of  sublimity. 

2.  Power.  —  The  second  circumstance  that  may  be  named 
as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  great  power. 

A  Locomotive.  —  A  man  standing  by  a  railroad  track,  out  in  the 
open  country,  where  the  trains  pass  at  full  speed,  and  seeing  a  mon- 
ster locomotive,  with  its  enormous  burden,  sweep  by  at  the  rate  of 
forty  or  fifty  miles  an  hour,  shaking  the  very  earth  as  it  passes,  gets 
an  impression  of  power  that  is  in  the  highest  degree  sublime. 

Steam-Hammers.  —  A  like  impression  is  produced  on  contemplat- 
ing the  gigantic  machines  now  used  in  engineering  operations, — 
ponderous  hammers,  weighing  in  some  instances  many  tons,  swayed 
up  and  down,  with  all  their  resistless  mass,  with  perfect  ease  and 
dexterity,  as  if  mere  playthings  in  the  hands  of  a  child.  Indeed,  the 
actual  processes  of  modern  mechanism,  as  seen  in  our  foundries  and 
mines,  far  surpass  in  grandeur  whatever  was  fabled  by  the  ancients 
in  their  wildest  imaginings  of  the  labors  of  Vulcan  and  the  Cyclops. 

Natural  Objects.  —  Many  objects  in  nature  give  an  impression  of 
power  that  awakens  a  feeling  of  the  sublime.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  earthquakes,  thunder  and  lightning,  volcanoes,  cataracts, 


200  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

storms  at  sea,  and  nearly  all  unusual  and  violent  commotions  of  the 
elements.  Some  of  the  larger  animals,  such  as  the  lion,  display  a 
certain  power  and  majesty  that  raise  an  emotion  of  sublimity  in  the 
beholder. 

War-Horse.—  The  war-horse,  as  described  in  the  book  of  Job,  is  a 
familiar  instance. 

"  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength?  hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  thun- 
der? Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper?  The  glory  of  his  nostrils  is 
terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength ;  he  goeth  on  to 
meet  the  armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  affrighted ;  neither  turneth 
he  back  from  the  sword.  The  quiver  rattleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear 
and  the  shield.  He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage;  neither 
believeth  he  that  it  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  He  saith  among  the  trumpets, 
Ha !  ha !  and  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the 
shouting."    (Job  39:  19-25.) 

3.  Awfulness.  —  The  third  circumstance  that  may  be  named 
as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  a  certain  degree  of 
awfulness  and  solemnity. 

Objects  which  Inspire  Awe.  —  Darkness,  solitude,  and  silence, 
especially  when  connected  with  some  indefinable  apprehension  of 
danger,  all  tend  to  produce  a  feeling  of  sublimity.  The  scenes  of 
external  nature  which  awaken  this  feeling  are  not  the  gay  land- 
scape, the  flowery  meadow,  or  the  busy  and  flourishing  city ;  but 
the  hoary  mountain,  the  solitary  lake,  the  aged  forest,  or  the  de- 
serted ruin. 

Night.  —  For  the  same  reason,  anything  which  has  in  itself  ele- 
ments of  grandeur  becomes  still  more  impressive  when  observed  at 
night.  The  firmament,  amid  the  silence  and  stillness  of  that  season, 
strikes  the  imagination  with  a  more  awful  grandeur  than  when  seen 
amid  the  splendors  of  the  noonday  sun.  The  deep  tones  of  a  great 
bell  are  at  any  time  grand ;  but  they  are  doubly  so  when  heard  at 
the  still  and  solemn  hour  of  midnight.  In  the  sublime  description 
which  the  Scriptures  give  of  the  presence  of  Jehovah,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  surrounding  himself  with  a  mysterious  darkness. 

*'  He  bowed  the  heavens  also,  and  came  down ;  and  darkness  was  under  his 
feet.  He  made  darkness  his  secret  place ;  his  pavilion  round  about  him  were 
dark  waters,  and  thick  clouds  of  the  skies."    (Psalm  18 :  9-11.) 

4.  Obscurity.  —  Another  circumstance  that  helps  to  awaken 
a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  obscurity. 


SPECIAL   PROPERTIES— SUBLIMITY.        201 

How  Obscurity  Operates. —  Obscurity  alone  does  not  produce  sub- 
limity, but  it  co-operates  powerfully  with  other  circumstances  in 
producing  this  feeling.  This  is  one  reason  why  objects  otherwise 
impressive,  become  more  so  in  the  obscurity  of  the  night  season. 
Things  seen  only  in  dim,  uncertain  outline  become  magnified  and 
exaggerated  under  the  influence  of  an  excited  imagination. 

Ghosts.  — Hence  the  awe  inspired  by  the  supposed  appearance  of 
ghosts.  The  mysterious  power  attributed  to  such  beings,  joined  to 
the  awful  obscurity  attending  their  appearance,  has  always  given 
them  a  strong  hold  upon  the  imagination. 

Example.  —  A  good  illustration  of  this  is  found  in  the  book  of 
Job,  (4  :  13-17,)  when  Eliphaz  describes  a  spirit  as  appearing  to  him 
in  the  silence  and  obscurity  of  the  night : 

"  In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men, 
fear  came  upon  me,  and  trembling,  which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake.  Then 
a  spirit  passed  before  my  face ;  the  hair  of  my  flesh  stood  up :  it  stood  still,  but 
I  could  not  discern  the  form  thereof:  an  image  was  before  mine  eyes,  there  was 
silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice,  saying,  Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God  ?  " 

5.  Loudness  of  Sound.  —  Another  circumstance  which  often 
produces  the  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  great  loudness  of  sound. 

What  Kind  of  Loudness  Sublime.  —  It  is  not,  however,  every  kind 
of  loud  sound  that  produces  this  effect.  Sounds  that  are  shrill  or 
piercing,  may  terrify  or  distress,  but  they  do  not  fill  the  mind  with 
ideas  of  grandeur.  It  is  the  deep  bass  of  the  ocean,  the  roar  of  the 
cataract  and  of  the  storm,  of  thunder  and  earthquake,  the  shouting 
of  a  multitude,  or  the  bursting  of  cannon,  not  the  shriek  of  the 
locomotive,  that  awakens  a  feeling  of  sublimity. 

Example  from  Revelation.  —  How  many  of  these  ideas  are  brought 
together  in  that  sublime  scene  described  in  the  Revelation  (19  :  6). 

"And  I  heard  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a  great  multitude,  and  as  the  voice  of  many 
waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  mighty  thunderings,  saying,  Alleluia :  for  the  Lord 
God  Omnipotent  reigneth." 

6.  Moral  Greatness.  —  A  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  awa- 
kened when  we  contemplate  anything  strikingly  great  or 
noble  in  human  actions.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  Moral 
Sublime. 


202  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Explanation.  —  Whenever,  in  some  critical  and  high  situation,  we 
behold  a  man  uncommonly  intrepid,  and  resting  upon  himself; 
superior  to  passion  and  to  fear ;  elevated  by  some  great  principle  to 
the  contempt  of  popular  opinion,  of  selfish  interest,  of  dangers,  or 
of  death,  then  we  are  struck  with  a  sense  of  the  sublime.  Actions 
of  this  kind  are  called  heroic,  and  they  produce  an  effect  similar  to 
that  produced  by  the  contemplation  of  the  grand  objects  in  nature, 
filling  the  mind  with  admiration,  and  even  with  awe. 

When  King  Porus,  after  a  gallant  defence,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  asked 
how  he  wished  to  be  treated,  he  replied,  "  Like  a  king." 

When  the  pilot  was  afraid  to  put  out  to  sea  with  Caesar  in  an  open  boat  in  time 
of  storm,  Caesar  said,  "  Why  do  you  fear?    You  carry  Cxsar" 

When  Gideon  condemned  the  captive  princes  Zeba  and  Zalmunna  to  be  put 
to  death,  and  commanded  his  son,  who  was  standing  by,  to  slay  them,  they  re- 
plied to  Gideon,  "  Rise  thou  and  fall  upon  us,"  thinking  it  more  honorable  to  fall 
by  the  hand  of  a  great  warrior  than  by  the  hand  of  a  mere  youth. 

An  English  transport,  carrying  passengers  and  troops,  sprang  a  leak  upon  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Held  to  their  duty  by  a  young  Ensign,  the  four  hundred  troops 
gave  up  the  life-boats  to  the  passengers ;  and  forming  in  rank  and  file  on  the 
deck,  as  the  loaded  boats  sailed  off  to  a  safe  distance,  the  passengers  caught  the 
sound  of  the  young  Ensign's  voice,  as  he  shouted,  standing  face  to  face  with 
death,  "  Fire,  my  boys,  a  parting  salute  to  Old  England ! "  There  came  a  volley 
of  musketry,  and  when  the  smoke  cleared  away,  not  even  a  floating  spar  told 
where  the  vessel  and  her  gallant  freight  had  gone  down  beneath  the  waters. 

Actions  such  as  these  fill  the  mind  with  a  feeling  of  the  sublime.  History  is 
full  of  examples. 

n.  The  Sublime  in  Writing. 

Having  thus,  in  regard  to  actions  and  to  natural  objects,  formed 
some  definite  idea  of  what  those  qualities  are  which  raise  in  us  the 
feeling  of  the  sublime,  we  are  the  better  able  to  explain  what  it  is 
that  constitutes  the  sublime  in  writing  or  discourse.  This,  then; 
will  be  our  next  inquiry. 

1.  Sublimity  of  Subject. — The  first  requisite,  in  order  that 
a  piece  of  composition  shall  be  sublime,  is  that  the  subject  of 
discourse  shall  itself  be  sublime. 

Explanation.  —  Unless  the  action,  or  the  natural  object  or  occur- 
rence, or  whatever  it  is  that  we  discourse  about,  is  itself  such  that 
if  actually  witnessed  by  us  it  would  awaken  a  feeling  of  sublimity, 
no  mere  words  can  make  it  so.*  High-sounding  words  clothing  a 
mean  subject  are  only  the  lion's  skin  covering  an  ass.  They  give 
us  a  bray,  not  the  genuine  roar  which  sends  terror  to  the  heart. 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— SUBLIMITY.        203 

2.  A  Vivid  Conception  of  the  Strong  Points.  —  The  second 
requisite,  in  order  that  a  piece  of  composition  shall  be  sub- 
lime, is  that  the  writer  or  speaker  form  a  vivid  conception 
of  the  strong  points  of  the  subject  of  discourse. 

Explanation.  —  A  man  of  feeble  abilities,  though  describing  the 
most  awful  or  the  most  stupendous  object  in  nature,  may  yet  not 
have  the  natural  elevation  of  soul  which  will  lead  him  to  notice  what 
is  really  grand  in  the  object.  He  must  have  something  grand  in 
himself  in  order  to  conceive  rightly  of  what  is  grand  in  other  things. 
It  is  not  in  rules  to  give  this  ability.  It  is  the  gift  of  God.  No  one 
can  write  sublimely,  even  on  a  sublime  subject,  unless  he  has  by 
nature  a  certain  greatness  of  soul. 

Napoleon  in  Egypt,  wishing  to  inspire  his  army  with  enthusiasm 
for  the  battle,  pointed  to  the  Pyramids,  and  said:  "Thirty  centuries 
are  looking  down  upon  you!  "  No  one  who  was  not  himself  of  heroic 
mould  would  have  thus  conceived  or  spoken  of  those  hoary  monu- 
ments of  antiquity. 

A  thunder-storm  at  night  among  the  mountains  is  a  spectacle  of 
terrible  sublimity.  But  a  description  of  it,  even  if  accurate  in  all 
its  particulars,  would  not  necessarily  be  sublime.  The  writer  must 
know  how  to  seize  strongly  upon  those  few  grand  features  which 
constitute  its  sublimity.  None  but  a  poet  of  high  genius  could  have 
conceived  of  it  as  Byron  has  done : 

Far  along 
From  peak  to  peak  the  rattling  crags  among, 

Leaps  the  live  thunder!  not  from  one  lone  cloud, 
But  every  mountain  now  hath  found  a  tongue, 

And  Jura  answers  through  her  misty  shroud, 
Back  to  the  joyous  Alps,  who  call  to  her  aloud ! 


How  the  lit  lake  shines,  a  phosphoric  sea, 
And  the  big  rain  comes  dancing  to  the  earth ! 

And  now  again  'tis  black  — and  now  the  glee 
Of  the  loud  hill  shakes  with  its  mountain  mirth, 

As  if  they  did  rejoice  o'er  a  young  earthquake's  birth. 

3.  Suppression  of  Belittling  Details.  —  A  third  condition 
to  sublimity  in  discourse  is  that  the  author  knows  what  par- 
ticulars to  omit,  as  well  as  what  to  insert. 


204  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Example  from  Milton.  —  There  are,  even  about  the  grandest  ob- 
jects, many  details  which  are  belittling.  Milton,  in  his  battle  of  the 
angels,  describes  them  as  tearing  up  the  mountains  and  throwing 
them  at  one  another : 

From  their  foundations  loos'ning  to  and  fro, 
They  plucked  the  seated  hills,  with  all  their  load, 
Rocks,  waters,  woods ;  and  by  the  shaggy  tops 
Uplifting,  bore  them  in  their  hands. 

Here  no  circumstance  is  mentioned  which  is  not  sublime. 

Claudian.  —  One  of  the  ancient  poets,  Claudian,  in  describing  a 
similar  scene  in  the  wars  of  the  giants,  adds  a  circumstance  which 
makes  the  whole  thing  ridiculous.  He  represents  one  of  the  giants 
with  Mount  Ida  upon  his  shoulders,  and  a  river,  which  flowed  from 
the  mountain,  running  down  along  the  giant's  back. 

Virgil.— So  great  a  poet  as  Virgil  has  made  a  like  mistake  in  de- 
scribing an  eruption  of  Mount  iEtna.  Personifying  the  mountain, 
he  describes  it  under  the  degrading  image  of  a  drunken  man  "belch- 
ing up  its  bowels  with  a  groan  "  (eructam  viscera  cum  gemitu). 

Blackmore.  —  Sir  Kichard  Blackmore,  by  a  singular  perversity  of 
taste,  seized  upon  this  idea  as  the  capital  circumstance  in  his  de- 
scription, and,  as  one  of  his  critics  observes,  represents  the  mountain 
as  in  a  fit  of  the  colic. 

JEtna,  and  all  the  burning  mountains,  find 
Their  kindled  stores  with  inbred  storms  of  wind 
Blown  up  to  rage,  and  roaring  out  complain, 
As  torn  with  inward  gripes,  and  torturing  pain ; 
Laboring,  they  cast  their  dreadful  vomit  round, 
And  with  their  melted  bowels  spread  the  ground. 

4.  Simplicity  and  Conciseness  of  Expression.  —  A  fourth 
condition  of  sublimity  in  writing  is  that  the  expression  be 
simple  and  concise. 

Explanation.— Simplicity  is  here  used  in  opposition  to  profuse  and 
studied  ornament,  and  conciseness  to  superfluous  expression.  In  all 
the  celebrated  examples  of  the  sublime  which  literature  affords,  the 
words  used  are  comparatively  plain  and  few.  The  sublimity  is  in 
the  thought,  and  that  is  all  the  more  impressive  for  standing,  like 
the  Pyramids,  in  simple  and  unadorned  grandeur. 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— SUBLIMITY.        205 

Longinus,  a  learned  Greek  of  the  third  century,  quotes,  as  an  in- 
stance of  the  sublime,  the  manner  in  which  Moses,  in  the  first  chapter 
of  Genesis,  describes  the  creation  of  light :  "  God  said,  Let  there  be 
light,  and  there  was  light ;  "  yet  the  expression  is  perfectly  plain 
and  simple,  without  ornament,  and  without  a  superfluous  word.  The 
grandeur  of  the  passage  consists  in  the  strong  impression  it  gives 
us  of  the  greatness  of  the  divine  power,  which  produces  such  won- 
derful effects  by  merely  speaking  a  word. 

The  Sublimity  of  the  Gospels.  —  Many  of  the  sayings  and  most  of 
the  miracles  of  our  Lord,  as  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  have  the  same 
characteristic.  They  are  expressed  with  the  utmost  simplicity  and 
plainness,  and  yet  they  are  in  the  highest  degree  sublime.  The  most 
stupendous  miracles  are  described  with  a  simple  majesty  fully  equal  to 
that  in  Genesis  which  extorted  such  admiration  from  Longinus. 

Examples.—  In  describing  the  greatest  of  all  his  miracles,  that  of  raising  from 
the  dead,  the  record  is  simply,  "  Jesus  said.  Lazarus,  come  forth :  and  he  that 
was  dead  came  forth."  In  healing  the  worst  form  of  disease  then  known,  he 
merely  said  to  the  leprous  man, "  Be  thou  clean  :  and  immediately  his  leprosy 
was  cleansed."  When  the  disciples  were  in  peril  at  sea,  more  terrifying  than 
that  which  daunted  Caesar's  pilot,  Jesus  with  calm  serenity  said,  "  It  is  I,  be  not 
afraid."  His  claims  to  authority,  as  a  teacher  come  from  God,  are  put  forth  in 
few  and  simple  words,  but  at  the  same  time  with  a  majesty  of  expression  that 
forced  even  his  enemies  to  say,  "  never  man  spake  like  this  man." 

Character  of  these  Utterances.—  These  utterances  are  either  simply 
blasphemous  in  their  arrogance,  or  they  are  in  the  highest  degree 
sublime.  Imagine  any  other  man  that  ever  lived,  saying  to  the 
countless  tribes  of  affliction,  in  all  the  ends  of  the  earth,  "  Come 
unto  me,  all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy-laden,  and  /  will  give  you 
rest."  "  Let  not  your  hearts  be  troubled :  ye  believe  in  God,  believe 
also  in  me."  "  Before  Abraham  was,  I  am."  "  In  this  place  is  one 
greater  than  the  temple."  "  The  son  of  man  is  Lord  even  of  the 
Sabbath  day."  "  I  am  the  resurrection  and  the  life :  he  that  believ- 
eth  in  me,  though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live." 

Improving  upon  the  Sublime.— If  we  take  any  of  the  examples 
which  have  been  given,  and  endeavor  to  improve  upon  them,  by 
piling  up  big  words  and  sounding  epithets,  and  by  going  into  vari- 
ous small  details,  we  soon  find  that  the  sublimity  has  all  disappeared. 
The  transaction  or  the  thought  may  still  be  grand ;  but  our  expres- 
sion of  it  is  poor  and  commonplace.  A  second-rate  poet  has  thus 
18 


206  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

dilated  upon  Caesar's  celebrated  phrase,  Quid  times  f   Ccesarem  vehis. 
("  What  do  you  fear?     You  carry  Caesar.") 

"  But  Caesar,  still  superior  to  distress, 
Fearless,  and  confident  of  sure  success, 
Thus  to  the  pilot  loud :  The  seas  despise. 
And  the  vain  threat'ning  of  the  noisy  skies; 
Though  gods  deny  thee  yon  Ausonian  strand, 
Yet  go,  I  charge  you,  go,  at  my  command. 
Thy  ignorance  alone  can  cause  thy  fears, 
Thou  know'st  not  what  a  freight  thy  vessel  bears; 
Thou  know'st  not  I  am  he  to  whom  't  is  given, 
Never  to  want  the  care  of  watchful  heaven. 
Obedient  fortune  waits  my  humble  thrall, 
And  always  ready,  comes  before  I  call. 
Let  winds  and  seas,  loud  wars  at  freedom  wage, 
And  waste  upon  themselves  their  empty  rage; 
A  stronger,  mightier  daimon  is  thy  friend, 
Thou  and  thy  bark  on  Csesar's  fate  depend. 
Thou  stand'st  amazed  to  view  this  dreadful  scene, 
And  wonder'st  what  the  gods  and  fortune  mean; 
But  artfully  their  bounties  thus  they  raise, 
And  from  my  danger  arrogate  new  praise; 
Amid  the  fears  of  death  they  bid  me  live, 
And  still  enhance  what  they  are  sure  to  give." 


II.  BEAUTY. 

Mode  of  Treatment.—  The  treatment  of  Beauty  as  a  quality  of 
style  must  be,  in  some  respects,  similar  to  our  treatment  of  Sub- 
limity. We  will  speak  first  of  Beauty  in  general,  and  then  of  Rhe- 
torical beauty,  or  beauty  in  Composition. 

I.  Beauty  in  General. 

Eelation  of  Beauty  to  8ublimity.  —  Beauty,  next  to  Sublimity, 
affords  the  highest  pleasure  to  the  taste.  The  emotion  which  it 
raises,  however,  is  very  distinguishable  from  that  of  sublimity.  It 
is  of  a  calmer  kind;  more  gentle  and  soothing;  does  not  elevate 
the  mind  so  much,  but,  on  the  contrary,  produces  an  agreeable 
serenity.  Sublimity  raises  a  feeling  too  violent  to  be  lasting;  the 
pleasure  arising  from  beauty  admits  of  longer  continuance.  It 
extends  also  to  a  much  greater  variety  of  objects.  It  is  applied 
indeed  to  almost  every  external  object  that  pleases  either  the  eye, 
or  the  ear;  to  many  dispositions  of  the  mind  ;  to  numerous  objects 
of  mere  abstract  science ;  and  to  nearly  all  the  graces  of  writing. 
We  talk  currently  of  a  beautiful  tree  or  flower;  a  beautiful  char- 


STECIAL    PROPERTIES— BEAUTY.  207 

acter;  a  beautiful  theorem  in  mathematics;  a  beautiful  poem  or 


The  qualities  which  produce  in  us  the  emotion  of  beauty  may 
mostly  be  reduced  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Color. —  Color  affords  the  simplest  instance  of  beauty. 
The  eye  is  so  formed  that  certain  colors  give  us  pleasure, 
and  these  colors  we  call  beautiful. 

How  far  Influenced  by  Association.—  In  some  cases,  probably,  the 
pleasure  derived  from  color  is  influenced  by  the  association  of  ideas. 
Green,  for  instance,  is  more  pleasing,  because  associated  with  rural 
scenes;  blue,  with  the  serenity  of  the  sky ;  white,  with  innocence. 
Persons  differ  too  in  their  choice  of  colors,  and  in  the  extent  to 
which  color  itself  gives  them  pleasure.  But,  notwithstanding  this, 
the  fact  still  remains  that  color  alone,  apart  from  all  associations,  is 
a  source  of  beauty. 

Evidence  of  God's  Goodness. — It  is  a  striking  evidence  of  the  good- 
ness of  the  Creator,  that  a  source  of  pleasure  so  pure  and  elevating 
is  at  the  same  time  so  abundant.  The  whole  visible  creation,  ani- 
mate and  inanimate,  is  a  picture  gallery,  replete  with  specimens  of 
coloring  such  as  no  art  of  man  can  equal,  either  for  richness  or  for 
delicacy.  There  is  no  shade  or  tint,  in  which  the  eye  of  man  takes 
delight,  that  may  not  be  found  in  its  perfection  in  the  plumage  of 
the  birds,  the  leaves  of  plants  and  flowers,  the  varied  hues  of  the 
morning  and  evening  sky,  the  wondrous  shells  of  the  ocean,  the  still 
more  wondrous  gems  from  the  mine. 

2.  Figure. — Figure,  as  a  source  of  beauty,  is  more  com- 
plex and  diversified  than  color.  The  beauty  which  can  be 
traced  to  figure,  is  made  up  of  several  elements,  which  may 
be  separated  in  idea. 

Kegularity.  —  The  first  of  these  elements  is  regularity.  By  a 
regular  figure  is  meant  one  which  we  perceive  to  be  formed  accord- 
ing to  some  rule,  and  not  left  arbitrary  and  loose  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  its  parts.  Thus  a  square,  a  triangle,  a  circle,  an  ellipse  are 
regular  figures,  and  on  the  proper  occasions  please  the  eye  by  this 
regularity,  and  are,  for  that  reason,  accounted  beautiful. 


208  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Variety.  —  Another  element,  in  the  beauty  which  is  dependent 
upon  figure,  is  exactly  the  opposite  to  that  just  named.  I  mean 
variety.  This  latter  is  indeed  a  much  more  prolific  source  of  beauty 
than  the  former.  Both  in  the  works  of  nature,  and  in  those  works 
of  art  which  are  intended  to  please,  while  regularity  of  figure  is 
sufficiently  observed  to  prevent  confusion,  and  to  show  design,  yet 
a  certain  graceful  variety  is  the  prevailing  characteristic. 

Each  when  Pleasing.  —  Exact  mathematical  figures,  indeed,  are 
seldom,  perhaps  never,  pleasing,  except  when  associated  with  the 
idea  of  fitness  for  some  particular  use.  The  doors  and  windows  of 
a  house  are  made  after  a  regular  form,  with  exact  proportion  of 
parts ;  and  being  so  formed,  they  please  the  eye,  because  by  this 
very  regularity  of  figure  they  better  subserve  the  use  for  which  they 
were  designed.  But  the  plants  and  flowers  which  surround  the 
house  have  an  almost  infinite  diversity  and  variety  of  figure,  and 
please  us  all  the  more  for  being  so  formed,  instead  of  growing  in 
squares,  circles,  and  polygons. 

Curves. —  Figures  bounded  by  curved  lines  are  in  general  more 
beautiful  than  those  bounded  by  straight  lines  and  angles.  To  say 
that  a  thing  is  angular,  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  it  lacks 
beauty.  Of  curved  lines,  those  which  are  elliptical  are  usually  more 
pleasing  than  those  which  are  circular.  The  reason  seems  to  be 
that  in  the  ellipse,  there  is  a  constant  deviation  from  the  line  of 
curvature,  giving  at  the  same  time  continual  uniformity  and  con- 
tinual change.  For  the  same  reason,  wave  lines  and  spiral  lines  are 
accounted  beautiful,  and  they  are  found  of  frequent  recurrence  in 
shells,  flowers,  and  other  works  of  nature,  and  in  the  works  of  art 
that  are  designed  for  ornament  and  decoration. 

3.  Motion.  —  Motion  is  a  source  of  beauty.  By  this  is 
meant  that  bodies  in  motion  are  for  that  reason  more  agree- 
able than  bodies  at  rest.  But  not  every  kind  of  motion  is 
agreeable,  and  of  those  which  are  agreeable  some  are  more 
so  than  others. 

Gentle. —  The  first  requisite  to  the  agreeableness  of  any  motion  is 
that  it  should  be  gentle.  A  bird  gliding  through  the  air  is  beauti- 
ful ;  the  lightning,  on  the  contrary,  darting  from  side  to  side  of  the 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— BEAUTY.  209 

heavens,  is  sublime.  We  feel  the  same  difference  in  contemplating 
a  stream  moving  gently  along  its  course,  and  a  torrent  dashing 
tumultuously  over  a  precipice. 

Curvilinear. — Another  requisite  to  the  agreeableness  of  motion  is 
that  it  should  be  in  curved  rather  than  in  straight  lines.  Hence  the 
pleasing  effect  of  curling  smoke  or  flame.  Here  it  is  to  be  noticed 
that  most  of  the  motions  used  by  men  in  transacting  the  necessary 
business  of  life  are  in  straight  lines,  while  those  connected  mainly 
with  pleasure  and  ornament  are  made  in  curving  lines. 

4.  Complex  Beauty.  —  Though  color,  figure,  and  motion 
are  separate  principles  of  beauty,  yet  in  mauy  beautiful 
objects  they  all  meet,  and  thereby  render  the  beauty  both 
greater  and  more  complex. 

Examples.  —  Thus,  in  flowers,  trees,  and  animals,  we  are  enter- 
tained at  once  with  the  delicacy  of  the  color,  with  the  gracefulness 
of  the  figure,  and  sometimes  also  with  the  motion  of  the  object. 
Although  each  of  these  produces  separately  an  agreeable  sensation, 
yet  these  sensations  are  of  such  a  similar  nature  as  readily  to  mix 
and  blend  in  one  general  perception  of  beauty,  which  we  ascribe  to 
the  whole  object  as  its  cause':  for  beauty  is  always  conceived  by  us 
as  something  residing  in  the  object  which  raises  the  pleasant  sensa- 
tion ;  a  sort  of  glory  which  dwells  upon  and  invests  it. 

The  Most  Complete  Example. —  Perhaps  the  most  complete  assem- 
blage of  beautiful  objects  that  can  anywhere  be  found,  is  presented 
by  a  rich  natural  landscape,  where  there  is  a  sufficient  variety  of 
objects;  fields  in  verdure,  scattered  trees  and  flowers,  running 
water,  and  animals  grazing.  If  to  these  be  joined  some  of  the 
productions  of  art,  which  suit  such  a  scene, —  as  a  bridge  with 
arches  over  a  river,  smoke  rising  from  cottages  in  the  midst  of 
trees,  and  the  distant  view  of  a  fine  building  seen  by  the  rising 
sun, —  we  then  enjoy,  in  the  highest  perfection,  that  gay,  cheerful, 
and  placid  sensation  which  characterizes  beauty.  To  have  an  eye 
and  a  taste  formed  for  catching  the  peculiar  beauties  of  such  scenes 
as  these  is  a  necessary  requisite  for  all  who  attempt  poetical  de- 
scription. 

5.  Beauty  of  Countenance.  —  The  beauty  of  the  human 

18*  O 


210  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

countenance  is  more  complex  than   any  that  we  have  yet 
considered. 

What  it  Includes.  —  It  includes  the  beauty  of  color,  arising  from 
the  delicate  shades  of  the  complexion ;  and  the  beauty  of  figure, 
arising  from  the  lines  which  form  the  different  features  of  the  face. 
But  the  chief  beauty  of  the  countenance  depends  upon  a  mysterious 
expression  which  it  conveys  of  the  qualities  of  the  mind ;  of  good 
sense  or  good  humor;  of  sprightliness,  candor,  benevolence,  sensi- 
bility, or  other  amiable  dispositions.  How  it  comes  to  pass  that  a 
certain  conformation  of  features  is  connected  in  our  idea  with  cer- 
tain moral  qualities ;  whether  we  are  taught  by  instinct  or  by  expe- 
rience to  form  this  connection,  and  to  read  the  mind  in  the  counte- 
nance, belongs  not  to  us  now  to  inquire,  nor  is  indeed  easy  to  re- 
solve. The  fact  is  certain  and  acknowledged,  that  what  gives  the 
human  countenance  its  most  distinguishing  beauty  is  what  is  called 
its  expression ;  or  an  image,  which  it  is  conceived  to  show,  of  in- 
ternal moral  dispositions. 

6.  Moral  Beauty. —  There  are  certain  qualities  of  the  mind 
which,  whether  expressed  in  the  countenance,  or  by  words,  or 
by  actions,  always  raise  in  us  a  feeling  similar  to  that  of 
beauty. 

Two  Kinds  of  Moral  Qualities.  —  There  are  two  great  classes  of 
moral  qualities.  One  class  is  of  the  high  and  great  virtues,  which 
require  extraordinary  efforts,  and  turn  upon  dangers  and  sufferings. 
Among  these  virtues  are  heroism,  magnanimity,  contempt  of  pleas- 
ures, and  contempt  of  death.  These  excite  in  the  spectator  an 
emotion  of  sublimity  and  grandeur.  The  other  class  is  generally 
of  the  social  virtues,  and  such  as  are  of  a  softer  and  gentler  kind. 
Among  these  are  compassion,  mildness,  friendship,  and  generosity. 
These  raise  in  the  beholder  a  sensation  of  pleasure,  so  much  akin  to 
that  produced  by  beautiful  external  objects,  that,  though  of  a  more 
dignified  nature,  it  may,  without  impropriety,  be  classed  under  the 
same  head. 

II.  The  Beautiful  in  Writing:. 
Ilaving  obtained  some  definite  notion  of  what  Beauty  is,  as  applied 
to  objects  in  general,  we  can  more  readily  understand  what  is  meant 
by  the  Beautiful  in  composition,  and  how  it  is  to  be  sought. 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— BEAUTY.  211 

1.  Beauty  of  Subject.  —  The  first  requisite  to  beauty  in 
composition  is  that  the  subject  of  discourse  be  of  an  agree- 
able character. 

Explanation. —  If  that  of  which  we  write  or  speak  is  of  such  a 
character  that  it  would,  if  actually  present,  excite  contempt,  disgust, 
or  terror,  no  grace  of  rhetoric  will  make  it  agreeable.  Discourse, 
to  be  beautiful,  must  present  to  the  mind  beautiful  subjects  for 
thought. 

The  Beautiful  and  the  Scientific.  —  There  is  a  great  difference  in 
this  respect  between  what  is  meant  to  please  merely,  and  what  is 
meant  to  instruct ;  between  the  beautiful  and  the  scientific.  In  a 
scientific  inquiry,  our  object  is  to  obtain  the  exact  facts,  whether 
agreeable  or  disagreeable.  But  in  attempting  to  write  what  is 
beautiful,  our  object  is  to  please.  We  select,  therefore,  topics  which 
are  pleasing,  and  omit  those  which  are  displeasing. 

2.  Beauty  of  Expression. — The  second  requisite  to  beauty 
in  composition  is  that  the  subject  be  handled  in  an  agree- 
able manner. 

Vagueness  of  the  Rule. — It  may  be  objected  to  this  rule  that  it  is 
too  vague  in  its  character  to  be  of  any  practical  use.  But  it  may 
serve  to  exclude  many  things  which  are  objectionable,  and  also  to 
point  in  a  general  way  to  the  kind  of  excellence  at  which  a  writer 
should  aim,  who  desires  to  be  considered  beautiful. 

Uses  of  the  Rule. —  It  excludes  low  and  vulgar  expressions,  slang 
phrases,  and  words  which  are  harsh-sounding  or  difficult  of  utter- 
ance, when  there  are  others  more  euphonious  and  equally  expres- 
sive. It  leads  one  to  seek  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  easy  of 
utterance,  such  as  please  the  ear,  and  such  as  for  any  cause  awaken 
in  the  mind  agreeable  ideas.  It  makes  much  use  of  simile,  meta- 
phor, and  other  rhetorical  figures,  and  it  pays  great  attention  to 
the  structure  of  sentences,  so  as  to  make  them  flowing  and  har- 
monious. 

3.  Conciseness  not  Necessary. —  Beauty  as  an  attribute  of 
style,  does  not  require  the  same  degree  of  conciseness  that 
sublimity  does. 


212  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

Why  the  Difference.—  A  certain  degree  of  diffuseness  is  entirely 
compatible  with  that  ease  and  grace  of  expression  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  beauty.  The  emotion  known  as  the  beautiful,  being  of  a 
gentle  nature,  is  capable  of  longer  continuance  than  the  sublime.  It 
may  pervade,  indeed,  a  whole  work,  while  sublimity  is  more  confined 
to  single  passages  and  expressions. 


Wit  and  Humor. —  Sublimity  and  beauty  exist  in  the  works  and 
operations  of  nature,  as  well  as  in  those  of  man,  and  are  expressed 
in  very  many  other  ways,  as  well  as  in  discourse.  But  the  qualities 
now  to  be  mentioned,  Wit  and  Humor,  belong  exclusively  to  man 
and  his  works;  and,  though  they  may  find  expression  to  some  extent 
in  painting,  sculpture,  music,  and  other  works  of  art,  yet  their  chief 
expression  is  by  means  of  language. 

Examples.—  A  mountain,  a  cataract,  a  thunder-storm,  a  volcano,  a  lion's 
roar,  may  be  sublime ;  a  landscape,  a  flower,  a  bird,  the  upward  soaring  of  the 
lark,  or  the  wavy  motion  of  a  field  of  grain,  may  be  beautiful ;  but  none  of  these 
acts  or  things  are  ever  spoken  of  as  witty  or  humorous.  These  epithets  apply  to 
human  things  only,  and  especially  to  the  utterances  of  human  speech. 

III.  WIT. 

For  the  proper  understanding  of  Wit,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to 
consider  separately  the  several  ideas  which  it  includes : 

Ingredients  of  Wit.  —  1.  First,  then,  surprise  is  an  essential  ingre- 
dient in  wit.  No  saying  is  ever  received  as  witty,  unless  it  discloses 
some  unexpected  relation  between  ideas.  Hence,  witticisms  seldom 
bear  repetition,  or  if  repeated,  they  lose  much  of  their  sparkle. 

2.  Secondly,  the  discovery  of  this  unexpected  relation  must  be  of  a 
kind  that  implies  some  mental  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  dis- 
coverer. The  discovery  of  a  gold  watch  hanging  on  a  bush,  or  of  a 
calf  with  two  heads,  would  no  doubt  be  unexpected,  and  would  cause 
great  surprise.*  But  there  would  be  nothing  witty  in  it.  It  would 
imply  no  intellectual  smartness  on  the  part  of  the  discoverer.  Any 
body  with  eyes,  and  in  the  same  situation,  would  see  the  same  thing. 

3.  Thirdly,  the  unexpected  relation  which  is  discovered,  should  be 
such  as  to  excite  surprise  merely,  and  not  any  higher  emotion,  like 
that  excited  by  the  sublime,  the  beautiful,  or  the  useful. 

*  Sydney  Smith. 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— WIT.  213 

Example.  — A  Hindoo  epigram  says,  "The  good  man  goes  not  upon  enmity, 
but  rewards  with  kindness  the  very  being  who  injures  him.  So  the  sandal-wood, 
while  it  is  felling,  imparts  to  the  edge  of  the  axe  its  aromatic  flavor."  Here  is  an 
unexpected  relation  discovered  between  felling  sandal-wood  and  returning  good 
for  evil.  The  discovery  of  this  relation  shows  smartness,  and  it  excites  surprise. 
Why  is  it  not  witty?  Because  it  is  a  great  deal  more.  The  mere  feeling  of  sur- 
prise is  swallowed  up  by  the  contemplation  of  the  beauty  of  the  thought.  The 
discovery  excites  a  higher  emotion  than  that  of  surprise. 

Another  Example.  —  There  is  a  French  saying,  that  hypocrisy  is  the  homage 
which  vice  renders  to  virtue.  Here  again  the  observation  is  not  regarded  witty, 
because  it  excites  our  admiration  for  its  justness  and  beauty. 

Definition  of  Wit. — Wit  is  the  discovery  of  such  an  unex- 
pected relation  between  ideas  as  will  excite  surprise,  but  no 
other  and  higher  emotion,  like  that,  for  instance,  excited  by 
the  sublime,  the  beautiful,  or  the  useful. 

Some  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  correctness  of  this  defi- 
nition. 

A  French  General.  —  Louis  XIV.,  being  molested  by  the  solicitations  of  a 
certain  general  officer,  cried  out,  loud  enough  to  be  overheard,  "  That  gentleman 
is  the  most  troublesome  officer  in  the  whole  army  "  "  Your  majesty's  enemies 
more  than  once  have  said  the  same  thing."  was  the  witty  reply.  Here,  that  the 
man  should  assent  to  the  royal  invective,  and  that  he  should  show  it  to  be  errone- 
ous, are  two  distinct  and  apparently  contradictory  ideas.  Yet  the  two  ideas  are 
expressed  in  such  terms,  that  a  relation  between  them  is  seen  to  exist,  and  the 
unexpected  discovery  of  this  relation  constitutes  the  wit. 

Contempt  of  Court.  —  A  judge  once  threatened  to  fine  a  lawyer  for  contempt 
of  Court.  "  I  have  expressed  no  contempt  of  Court."  said  the  lawyer;  "  on  the 
contrary.  I  have  carefully  concealed  my  feelings."  Here  an  unexpected  relation 
is  discovered  between  the  apparent  denial,  and  the  real  admission  of  the  con- 
tempt. 

"A  spaniel,  a  woman,  and  a  walnut-tree,— 
The  more  you  beat  'em,  the  better  they  be." 

"  The  world,  of  fools  has  such  a  store, 
That  he  who  would  not  see  an  ass 
Must  hide  at  home  and  bolt  his  door, 
And  break  his  looking-glass." 

"A  horse  bit  his  master;  — 
How  came  it  to  pass? 
He  heard  the  good  pastor 
Say,  All  flesh  is  grass." 

Madam  Blaize.  —  One  of  Goldsmith's  minor  poems,  "  The  Elegy  on  Madam 
Blaize,"  contains  a  witticism  of  a  peculiar  kind,  at  the  end  of  each  stanza: 

"Good  people  all,  with  one  accord, 
Lament  for  Madam  Blaize, 


214  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Who  never  wanted  a  good  word,— 
From  those  who  spoke  her  praise. 

"She  strove  the  neighborhood  to  please 
With  manners  wondrous  winning; 
She  never  followed  wicked  ways, — 
Unless  when  she  was  sinning." 

The  Jjap-dof?.  —  Sydney  Smith  tells  of  a  French  lady,  who,  when  her  pet  lap- 
dog  bit  a  piece  out  of  her  footman's  leg,  exclaimed,  "Ah,  poor  little  beast!  I 
hope  it  won't  make  him  sick." 

Jjnndseer.  —  When  Landseer,  the  great  animal  painter,  asked  Smith  to  sit  for 
his  picture,  Smith  replied,  "  Is  thy  servant  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  thing?" 

Mountain  and  Squirrel.  —  Emerson's  poem,  "The  Mountain  and  the 
Squirrel,"  is  remarkable  for  its  wit. 

The  mountain  and  the  squirrel 
Had  a  quarrel. 
And  the  former  called  the  latter  "  Little  Prig." 
Bun  replied  — 
"You  are  doubtless  very  big; 
But  all  sorts  of  wind  and  weather 
Must  be  taken  in  together, 
To  make  up  a  year, 
And  a  sphere; 
And  I  think  it  no  disgrace 
To  occupy  my  place. 
If  I  'm  not  so  large  as  you, 
You  are  not  so  small  as  I, 
And  not  half  so  spry. 

I'll  not  deny  you  make 
A  very  pretty  squirrel-track. 
Talents  differ:  all  is  well  and  wisely  put: 
If  I  cannot  carry  forests  on  my  back. 
Neither  can  you  crack  a  nut." 

Henry  Ward  Beecher  once,  on  the  1st  of  April,  received  a  letter  containing 
simply  the  words,  "April  Fool."  He  enclosed  it  to  Bonner,  with  a  note,  saying, 
"  I  have  often  heard  of  people's  writing  letters  and  forgetting  to  sign  their  name, 
but  I  never  before  heard  of  a  man's  signing  his  name  and  forgetting  to  write  the 
letter." 

Pun. — When  the  unexpected  relation  is  not  between  ideas, 
but  between  words,  the  witticism  is  called  a  pun. 

Character  of  the  Pun.  —  This  is  an  inferior  species  of  wit,  and  one 
which  is  often  carried  to  a  tiresome  excess.  Yet  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  puns  are  sometimes  very  effective. 

Example  from  Franhlin.  —  When  Hancock,  after  the  signing  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  urged  upon  the  signers  the  necessity  of  union,  saying, 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— WIT.  215 

'•We  must  all  hang  together"  "Yes,"  said  Franklin,  "or  we  shall  all  hang  sepa- 
rately!" This  is  undoubtedly  a  pun,  the  wit  turning  upon  the  new  and  unex- 
pected meaning  of  the  word  "  hang,"  as  used  in  the  reply.  But  the  pun  is  of  the 
same  serious  and  elevated  cast  as  that  which  closes  his  celebrated  letter  to  Stra- 
han,  of  about  the  same  date : 

Another  Example.  — "Yon  are  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  one  of  the 

majority  which  has  doomed  my  country  to  destruction.  You  have  begun  to  burn 
our  towns  and  murder  our  people.  Look  upon  your  hands!  They  are  stained 
with  the  blood  of  your  relations !  You  and  I  were  long  friends.  You  are  now 
my  enemy,  and  I  am  Yours,  B.  Franklin." 

Remark.  —  In  regard  to  both  of  these  examples,  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  they  can  more  easily  be  received  as  specimens  of  wit 
now,  at  the  distance  of  over  a  century  from  the  time  of  their 
utterance,  than  they  could  then,  when  they  were  fitted  to  awaken 
feelings  of  anger  and  stern  resolution,  rather  than  laughter. 

Currant  a  Pun.  —  Very  different  from  these  was  the  pun  uttered  on  a  certain 
occasion  by  Curran.  A  friend,  hearing  some  one  say  "  curosity  "  for  "  curiosity," 
exclaimed,  M  How  that  man  murders  the  language ! "  "  Not  quite  murders"  said 
Curran ;  "  he  only  knocks  an  i  (eye)  out." 

And  the  Doctor  told  the  Sexton, 
And  the  Sexton  tolled  the  bell.  —  Hood. 

"  Death  stops  my  pen,  but  not  my  pension."  —  Hood's  last  pun,  alluding  to  the 
pension  bestowed  upon  his  family. 

Theodore  Hook,  when  asked  for  lines  on  the  death  of  the  King  and  Queen  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  wrote : 

"Waiter!  two  Sandwiches!"  cried  Death, 
And  their  wild  Majesties  resigned  their  breath. 

Home  Tooke  said  of  the  poor  poets :  "  We  may  well  be  called  a  Republic  of 
letters,  for  there  is  not  a  sovereign  among  us." 

Here  lies  my  wife,  — a  sad  slattern  and  shrew; 
If  I  said  I  regretted  her,  I  should  lie  too.  — Anon. 

Shakespeare  has  written  three  sonnets,  which  are  an  extended  pun  on  his  own 
name.    One  of  them  is  given  below : 

Whoever  hath  her  wish,  thou  hast  thy  will, 

And  Will  to  boot,  and  wile  in  overplus ; 
More  than  enough  am  I,  that  vex  thee  still, 

To  thy  sweet  will  making  addition  thus. 
Wilt  thou,  whose  will  is  large  and  spacious, 
.  Not  once  vouchsafe  to  hide  my  will  in  thine? 

Shall  will  in  others  seem  right  gracious, 

And  in  my  will  no  fair  acceptance  shine? 
The  sea,  all  water,  yet  receives  rain  still, 

And  in  abundance  addeth  to  his  store; 
So  thou,  being  rich  in  will,  add  to  thy  will 

One  will  of  mine,  to  make  thy  large  will  more. 


216  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Let  no  unkind,  no  fair  bescechers  kill; 
Think  all  but  one,  and  me  in  that  one  Will. 

Habit  of  Punning. — The  habit  of  punning  should  be  avoided,  both 
in  writing  and  in  conversation.  Facility  in  making  puns  is  soon 
acquired,  and  when  acquired,  almost  always  leads  to  such  an  excess 
as  to  weary  both  readers  and  hearers.  There  are,  of  course,  excep- 
tions to  the  rule.  But,  in  general,  there  are  few  greater  bores  than 
an  inveterate  punster. 

Habit  of  being  Witty. —  In  the  cultivation  and  indulgence  of  wit 
of  the  higher  kind,  some  care  should  be  used.  A  professed  wit 
incurs  two  dangers :  First,  that  habit  of  mind  which  leads  him  to 
be  ever  on  the  lookout  for  something  striking  and  unexpected,  is 
not  the  one  most  conducive  to  truthfulness.  He  is  under  the  temp- 
tation of  saying  what  will  amuse  and  startle,  rather  than  what  is 
strictly  true.  Secondly,  witticisms  usually  are  made  at  somebody's 
expense.  If  not  barbed  with  malice,  they  yet  leave  a  sting  behind. 
No  man  usually  has  so  many  enemies  as  he  who  has  a  sharp  wit. 
He  may  be  feared,  but  he  is  also  hated. 

Dangers  of  Wit.  —  "  Professed  wits,  though  they  are  generally  eourted  for 
the  amusement  they  afford,  are  seldom  respected  for  the  qualities  they  possess. 
The  habit  of  seeing  things  in  a  witty  point  of  view  indreases,  and  makes  incur- 
sions from  its  own  proper  regions  upon  principles  and  opinions  which  are  ever 
held  sacred  by  the  wise  and  good.  A  witty  man  is  a  dramatic  performer;  in 
process  of  time,  he  can  no  more  exist  without  applause,  than  he  can  exist 
without  air;  if  his  audience  be  small,  or  if  they  are  inattentive,  or  if  a  new  wit 
defrauds  him  of  any  portion  of  his  admiration,  it  is  all  over  with  him,— he 
sickens,  and  is  extinguished.  The  applauses  of  the  theatre  on  which  he  per- 
forms are  so  essential  to  him.  that  he  must  obtain  them  at  the  expense  of  de- 
cency, friendship,  and  good  feeling. 

"  It  must  always  be  probable,  too.  that  a  mere  wit  is  a  person  of  light  and  friv- 
olous understanding.  His  business  is  not  to  discover  relations  of  ideas  that  are 
useful,  and  have  a  real  influence  upon  life,  but  to  discover  the  more  trifling  rela- 
tions which  are  only  amusing;  he  never  looks  at  things  with  the  naked  eye  of 
common  sense,  but  is  always  gazing  at  the  world  through  a  Claude  Lorraine 
glass,— discovering  a  thousand  appearances  which  are  created  only  by  the  in- 
strument of  inspection,  and  covering  every  object  with  factitious  and  un- 
natural colors.  In  short,  the  character  of  a  mere  wit  it  is  impossible  to  consider 
as  very  amiable,  very  respectable,  or  very  safe."— Sydney  Smith. 

Advantages  of  Wit.  —  "  I  have  talked  of  the  danger  of  wit :  I  do  not  mean 
by  that  to  enter  into  commonplace  declamation  against  faculties  because  they 
are  dangerous ;  wit  is  dangerous,  eloquence  is  dangerous,  a  talent  for  observa- 
tion is  dangerous,  every  thing  is  dangerous  that  has  efficacy  and  vigor  for  its 
characteristics;  nothing  is  safe  but  mediocrity.  The  business  is,  in  conducting 
the  understanding  well,  to  risk  something;  to  aim  at  uniting  things  that  are 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— HUMOR.  217 

commonly  incompatible.  The  meaning  of  an  extraordinary  man  is,  that  he  is 
eight  men,  not  one  man ;  that  he  has  as  much  wit  as  if  he  had  no  sense,  and  as 
much  sense  as  if  he  had  no  wit ;  that  his  conduct  is  as  judicious  as  if  he  were 
the  dullest  of  human  beings,  and  his  imagination  as  brilliant  as  if  he  were  irre- 
trievably ruined.  But  when  wit  is  combined  with  sense  and  information; 
when  it  is  softened  by  benevolence,  and  restrained  by  strong  principle:  when  it 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  can  use  it  and  despise  it,  who  can  be  witty  and 
something  much  better  than  witty,  who  loves  honor,  justice,  decency,  good 
nature,  morality,  and  religion  ten  thousand  times  better  than  wit;  wit  is  then  a 
beautiful  and  delightful  part  of  our  nature. 

"  There  is  no  more  interesting  spectacle  than  to  see  the  effects  of  wit  upon  the 
different  characters  of  men ;  than  to  observe  it  expanding  caution,  relaxing 
dignity,  unfreezing  coldness,  teaching  age,  and  care,  and  pain  to  smile,  extort- 
ing reluctant  gleams  of  pleasure  from  melancholy,  and  charming  even  the 
pangs  of  grief.  It  is  pleasant  to  observe  how  it  penetrates  through  the  coldness 
and  awkwardness  of  society,  gradually  bringing  men  nearer  together,  and  like 
the  combined  force  of  wine  and  oil,  giving  every  man  a  glad  heart  and  a  shining 
countenance.  Genuine  and  innocent  wit  like  this  is  surely  the  flavor  of  the 
mind !  Man  could  direct  his  ways  by  plain  reason,  and  support  his  life  by  taste, 
less  food ;  but  God  has  given  us  wit,  and  flavor,  and  brightness,  and  laughter, 
and  perfumes,  to  enliven  the  days  of  man's  pilgrimage,  and  to  'charm  his 
pained  steps  over  the  burning  marie.'  "Sydney  Smith. 

IV.  HUMOR. 

Humor  is,  in  many  respects,  like  wit.  Its  object  is  to  ex- 
cite laughter,  and  it  appeals  accordingly  to  our  sense  of  the 
ridiculous. 

Incongruity. —  The  laughter  produced  by  humor  comes  from  see- 
ing things  which  are  incongruous.  If  we  see  a  man  pretentiously 
dressed,  but  using  awkward  and  clownish  gestures,  or  employing 
big  words  while  violating  the  most  common  rules  of  grammar,  the 
things  seem  incongruous,  and  we  have  an  immediate  propensity  to 
laugh. 

Surprise. — To  say  that  a  thing  is  incongruous  is  only  another  way 
of  saying  that  it  is  unexpected.  Surprise,  therefore,  is  an  ingredient 
in  humor  as  it  is  in  wit. 

Contempt. —  Surprise  and  incongruity  alone,  however,  are  not  suf- 
ficient to  constitute  humor.  To  see  a  refined  and  delicate  lady 
accidentally  fallen  into  the  mud,  would  excite  our  pity;  to  see  a 
perfumed  fop  in  the  same  condition  would  make  us  laugh.  There 
would  be  incongruity  and  surprise  in  both  instances ;  but  in  the  one, 
there  are  circumstances  which  awaken  a  feeling  of  tenderness  and 
respect,  and  this  feeling  holds  in  abeyance  our  sense  of  the  ludi- 
19 


218  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC, 

crous.  This  suggests  another  condition  as  necessary  to  humor. 
The  incongruity  which  is  to  make  us  laugh  must  not  be  in  con- 
nection with  circumstances  which  awaken  any  higher  feeling,  such 
as  pity,  fear,  reverence,  and  so  forth.  We  must  have,  in  other 
words,  a  certain  feeling  of  contempt  for  the  person  laughed  at.  "We 
would  not  laugh  at  a  man  who  was  in  the  agonies  of  dying  no  mat- 
ter how  incongruous  and  absurd  might  be  the  contortions  of  his 
face.  The  solemnity  of  the  occasion  holds  all  lighter  emotions  in 
check. 

"  It  is  a  beautiful  thing  to  observe  the  boundaries  which  nature  has  affixed  to 
the  ridiculous,  and  to  notice  how  soon  it  is  swallowed  up  by  the  more  illustrious 
feelings  of  our  minds.  Where  is  the  heart  so  hard  that  could  bear  to  see  the 
awkward  resources  and  contrivances  of  the  poor  turned  into  ridicule?  Who 
could  laugh  at  the  fractured,  ruined  body  of  a  soldier?  Who  is  so  wicked  as  to 
amuse  himself  with  the  infirmities  of  extreme  old  age?  or  to  find  subject  for 
humor  in  the  weakness  of  a  perishing,  dissolving  body  ?  Who  is  there  that  does 
not  feel  himself  disposed  to  overlook  the  little  peculiarities  of  the  truly  great  and 
wise,  and  to  throw  a  veil  over  that  ridicule  which  they  have  redeemed  by  the 
magnitude  of  their  talents  and  the  splendor  of  their  virtues  ?  Who  ever  thinks 
of  turning  into  ridicule  our  great  and  ardent  hopes  of  a  world  to  come?  When- 
ever the  man  of  humor  meddles  with  these  things,  he  is  astonished  to  find  that 
in  all  the  great  feelings  of  their  nature  the  mass  of  mankind  always  think  and 
act  aright,  that  they  are  ready  enough  to  laugh,  but  that  they  are  quite  as  ready 
to  drive  away  with  indignation  and  contempt  the  light  fool  who  comes,  with  the 
feather  of  wit,  to  crumble  the  bulwarks  of  truth,  and  to  beat  down  the  Temples 
of  God !"  —  Sydney  Smith. 

Characteristic.  —  Another  important  thing  to  be  observed  is,  that, 
in  humor,  the  incongruity  which  excites  our  mirth  is  something 
characteristic  of  the  person  in  whom  such  incongruity  exists.  It  is 
something  which  would  be  absurd  for  us  to  do,  and  therefore  we 
laugh  at  it,  but  it  is  in  perfect  keeping  for  him.  Unless  it  is  thus  in 
keeping  with  his  character,  it  cannot  be  humorous,  although  it  may 
be  ridiculous.  A  humorous  story  told  of  a  Yankee,  and  in  keeping 
with  the  Yankee  character,  would  cease  to  be  humorous  if  told  of 
an  Irishman  or  a  Dutchman.  The  smart  sayings  of  Sam  Weller 
would  be  laughable  anywhere ;  but  they  are  humorous  only  as  com- 
ing from  Mr.  Weller  himself.  Humor,  to  be  successful,  demands  a 
fitness  of  things  approaching,  in  sharp  exactness,  the  demands  of 
the  sublime.  The  things  described  must  be  congruous  in  the  very 
midst  of  their  incongruity.  They  must  exactly  fit  the  character  of 
the  person  to  whom  they  are  attributed,  while  equally  not  fitting 
for  us,  and  therefore  laughed  at  by  us. 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES— HUMOR.  219 

Kindly.  —  Lastly,  in  genuine  humor  there  is  always  a  feeling  of 
kindliness  towards  the  persons  who  are  ridiculed.  We  have  our 
laugh  at  them,  but  in  a  good-natured  way  which  wishes  them  no 
harm.  Humor,  in  this  respect,  differs  widely  from  wit.  It  is  never 
bitter,  it  is  never  malignant.  It  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
largest  charity.  Thackeray,  himself  a  humorist  of  high  order,  has 
defined  humor  to  be  a  compound  of  wit  and  love.  "The  best  hu- 
mor," he  says,  "  is  that  which  contains  most  humanity,  that  which 
is  flavored  throughout  with  tenderness  and  kindness." 

Humorists  Kind-hearted.  —  In  accordance  with  the  last  remark,  it 
may  be  observed  that  those  writers  who  have  been  most  celebrated 
for  their  wit  have  usually  been  noted  for  their  ill-temper,  while  the 
humorists  have  in  the  main  been  persons  of  kind  and  amiable  dis- 
position. Among  the  humorous  writers  of  recent  times  who  may 
be  quoted  in  illustration  of  this  remark,  are  Lamb,  Hood,  Thacke- 
ray, and  Dickens,  of  England,  and  Irving,  Lowell,  Holmes,  and  Saxe, 
of  our  own  country. 

Continuance.  —  Wit  and  Humor  differ  in  regard  to  continuance. 
Wit  is  concentrated,  and  comes  at  intervals,  and  by  flashes.  Humor 
is  different  in  its  nature,  and  is  capable  of  being  continued  through 
a  whole  performance,  and  for  almost  any  length  of  time. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

VERSIFICATION. 

The  present  chapter  has  to  do  with  the  mechanism  of 
Poetry,  rather  than  with  poetry  itself. 

Object  of  Inquiry.  —  It  is  not  necessary,  at  this  point,  to  define 
what  poetry  is,  as  to  its  essential  nature.  It  is  for  the  present 
enough  to  know,  that  the  object  which  the  poet  has  in  presenting 
his  thoughts  in  a  poetical  form  is  to  increase  thereby  the  pleasure 
which  the  mere  thoughts  themselves  might  give  the  reader,  and  that 
a  part  at  least  of  this  increased  pleasure  depends  upon  contrivances 
which  are  wholly  of  a  mechanical  nature. 

THE  FOUNDATION  OF  VERSE. 

The  Question. — Why  is  it  that  the  same  thoughts,  even 
when  expressed  in  the  same  words,  please  more,  arranged  in 
one  particular  way,  than  they  do  under  some  other  arrange- 
ment, which  conveys  the  sense  with  equal  clearness  ? 

The  Proof.  —  That  the  fact  is  as  it  is  here  stated,  is  a  point  which 
any  one  can  decide  for  himself.  Take,  for  instance,  the  following 
passage  from  Byron,  stripped  of  its  poetical  form : 

"  It  Is  the  hour  when  the  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard  from  the  houghs;  it 
is  the  hour  when  lovers'  vows  in  every  whispered  word  seem  sweet;  and  gentle 
winds  and  near  waters  make  music  to  the  lonely  ear.  The  dews  have  lightly 
wet  each  flower,  and  the  stars  are  met  in  the  sky,  and  a  deeper  blue  is  on  the 
wave,  and  a  browner  hue  on  the  leaf,  and  that  clear  obscure  in  the  heaven,  so 
softly  dark  and  darkly  pure,  which  follows  the  decline  of  day,  as  twilight  melts 
away  beneath  the  moon." 

Example  Explained.  —  Here  the  sense  is  just  as  clear  ns  in  the  form 
in  which  it  was  originally  written,  and  the  words  are  all  the  same: 

220 


VER  SIFICA  TION.  221 

they  are  only  .arranged  differently.  The  words,  even  under  their 
present  arrangement,  exhibit  pleasant  pictures  to  the  imagination. 
But  how  much  is  that  pleasure  enhanced,  when  they  flow  forth  in 
the  melodious  form  in  which  the  poet  placed  them! 

It  is  the  hour  when  from  the  boughs 

The  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard; 
It  is  the  hour  when  lovers'  vows 

Seem  sweet  in  every  whispered  word; 
And  gentle  winds  and  waters  near 
Make  music  to  the  lonely  ear. 
Each  flower  the  dews  have  lightly  wet, 
And  in  the  sky  the  stars  have  met, 
,  And  on  the  wave  is  deeper  blue, 

And  on  the  leaf  a  browner  hue, 
And  in  the  heaven  that  clear  obscure, 
So  softly  dark,  and  darkly  pure. 
Which  follows  the  decline  of  day, 
As  twilight  melts  beneath  the  moon  away. 

There  is  probably  not  a  reader  living  who  does  not  feel  an  in- 
creased gratification  in  reading  the  passage  in  this  form.  The  ques-. 
tion  arises,  whence  this  increase  of  pleasure?  It  cannot  be  in  the 
sense,  for  that  is  expressed  with  equal  clearness,  and  by  the  same 


Verse  in  an  Unknown  Language.  —  This  point  is  rendered,  if  pos- 
sible, still  more  apparent  by  remarking  that  the  same  principle,  what- 
ever it  is,  that  gives  us  this  increase  of  pleasure,  gives  us  pleasure 
in  the  case  even  of  nonsense,  that  is,  in  the  melodious  versification 
of  a  language  which  we  do  not  understand,  and  which  therefore 
conveys  no  sense  to  us. 

Example.— Take  the  first  line  in  Virgil.   The  sense  is  expressed  clearly  enough 
by  the  words  standing  thus : 

Tu,  Tityre,  sub  fagi  patulae  tegmine  recubans. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  understand  Latin,  to  find  an  agreeable  differ- 
ence when  the  line  is  read  as  Virgil  wrote  it : 

Tityre,  tu  patulae,  recubans  sub  tegmine  fagi. 

Explanation.  —  The  difference  here   cannot  be  in  the  sense.     It 

must  be  in  the  sound;  and,  to  be  more  specific  still,  not  simply  in 

the  sounds  by  themselves,  for  we  have. the  same  identical  sounds  in 

both  cases,  but  in  the  arrangement  of  the  sounds.     The  ultimate 

19* 


222  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

analysis  of  the  subject,  therefore,  necessarily  leads  to  some  consider- 
ation of  the  action  of  the  vocal  organs  in  uttering  articulate  sounds. 

1.  Vocal  Impulse. —  The  first  thing  to  be  observed  in  re- 
gard to  this  utterance  is  that  the  vocal  organs  act  by  im- 
pulse.    This  may  be  accepted  as  an  ultimate  fact. 

A  Comparison.— The  movement  of  the  voice  in  pronunciation  is 
not  that  of  a  boat  gliding  equably  through  the  water,  but  that  of  a 
man  walking  on  the  ground  by  distinct  steps.  The  voice  goes  step 
by  step  in  the  pronunciation  of  words. 

Comparison  Extended. —  Extending  the  metaphor  somewhat,  we  may  say, 
it  is  the  consonant  sound  which  arrests  the  voice  in  its  progress,  just  as  the  ground 
arrests  the  foot  of  the  man  walking.  So  also  it  is  the  vowel  sound,  in  which  the 
voice  is  prolonged,  that  represents  the  space  passed  over  by  the  traveller  in  going 
from  one  footstep  to  another.  To  carry  the  voice  over  this  space,  that  is,  to  carry 
it  from  one  consonant  upon  which  it  has  rested,  through  a  vowel,  to  a  lodgment 
upon  some  other  consonant,  requires  a  distinct,  fresh  impulse. 

Syllables.— These  impulses  are  only  another  name  for  syllables, 
and  a  syllable  is  so  much  of  a  word  as  is  pronounced  during  one  im- 
pulse of  the  voice.  It  includes  a  vowel  always,  and  generally  one 
or  more  consonants. 

2.  Strong  and  Light  Impulses.—  The  second  thing  to  be 
observed  in  this  matter  is  that  in  ordinary  pronunciation  we 
never  utter  a  long  succession  of  syllables  with  precisely  the 
same  degree  of  impulse.  This  also  is  to  be  accepted  as  an 
ultimate  fact. 

Explanation.  —  One  finds  himself  naturally  and  easily  giving  a 
quick,  strong  impulse  to  every  second  or  third  syllable,  and  a  light, 
tripping  one  to  the  syllable  or  syllables  intervening.  The  organs 
seem  to  go  most  easily  and  pleasantly,  not  in  the  military  tread  of 
the  soldier,  but  in  the  hop-step-and-jump  of  schoolboys.  The  syl- 
lable to  which  this  strong  impulse  is  given  is  variously  called  a 
heavy,  a  grave,  or  an  accented  syllable. 

3.  Time  between  Impulses. —  A  third  thing  to  be  observed 
is,  that,  after  giving  one  of  these  strong  impulses  or  accents, 
some  little  time  is  required  before  the  organs  are  in  a  condi- 
tion to  give  another  accent. 


VERSIFICATION.  223 

Accentual  Intervals.  —  This  interval  between  two  accents  may 
either  be  left  vacant,  or  it  may  be  filled  up  with  one  or  more  light, 
unaccented  syllables.  When  the  time  is  not  so  filled  up,  there  is, 
after  each  heavy  impulse,  a  pause  or  rest. 

Examples.—  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  words  faith,  truth,  mirth,  spite,  hate. 
In  pronouncing  these  words,  thus  arranged,  we  involuntarily  give  to  each  a 
strong  impulse  or  accent,  and  after  each  we  make  a  pause. 

If  to  each  of  these  words  the  syllable  Jul  be  added,  making  faithful,  truthf>i\ 
mirthful,  spiteful,  hateful,  the  additional  light  syllable  will  then  occupy  the  time 
before  occupied  by  the  pause. 

The  interval  between  the  accents  may  be  occupied  by  two  light  syllables,  in- 
stead of  one,  as  in  the  word  faithfully.    These  two  light  syllables  are  then  con- 
sidered as  occupying  exactly  the  same  time  as  the  one  syllable,  or  the  pause. 
The  three  lines, 

Faith,  Truth,  Mirth,  Spite,  Hate, 

Faithful,  Truthful,  Mirthful,         Spiteful,  Hateful, 

Faithfully,       Truthfully,       Mirthfully,      Spitefully,       Hatefully, 

are  all  pronounced  in  exactly  the  same  time,  and  are,  in  versification,  all  counted 
as  of  the  same  length. 

Accentual  Stress  not  Arbitrary. —  It  is  not,  therefore,  by  custom, 
or  by  the  edicts  of  prosodians  and  orthoepists,  that  certain  sylla- 
bles, at  short  intervals,  receive  a  strong  and  distinguishing  stress 
or  impulse  of  the  voice.  On  the  contrary,  this  alternate  action 
and  reaction  of  the  voice  is  as  natural  and  involuntary  as  are  the 
pulsations  of  the  heart,  or  the  inspiration  and  expiration  of  the 
breath. 

Accent  Paramount. —  Accent  is  thus  a  paramount  law  in 
all  speech,  dividing  it  up  into  convenient  and  agreeable  sec- 
tions or  periods. 

Names  of  Accentual  Divisions. — These  sections  or  periods  have 
received  various  names.  They  are  called  sometimes  "  cadences," 
because  at  the  termination  of  each  the  voice  seems  to  fall ;  some- 
times "feet,"  because  the  voice  seems  to  go  through  the  syllables 
step  by  step ;  sometimes  "  metres,"  because  thereby  a  line  or  a  sen- 
tence is  meted  or  measured;  sometimes  also  "numbers,"  because  it 
thus  becomes  a  matter  of  count.  All  these  terms  may  be,  and  have 
been,  applied  equally  to  prose  and  verse,  because  all  speech  neces- 
sarily has  the  accentual  divisions  indicated  by  these  names.  Custom, 
however,  has  in  a  great  measure  restricted  the  terms  "  feet "  and 
"metres"  to  poetry,  and  "cadences"  to  prose. 


224  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Place  of  the  Accents  Important. —  The  heavy  or  accented  syllables 
may  be  placed  at  such  convenient  distances  apart  as  to  give  both 
ease  to  the  speaker  and  pleasure  to  the  hearer.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  can  readily  imagine  sucli  a  combination  of  syllables  with  refer- 
ence to  the  accent,  as  to  render  the  pronunciation  at  once  difficult 
and  dissonant. 

Examples.— Take  the  following  line,  made  up  for  the  occasion: 
Necessitous  halting  to  for  emphasized  alcohol  eccentricity. 
In  pronouncing  such  a  line,  we  find  the  voice  struggling  like  a  man 
making  his  way  through  a  bog.     How  different  from  this  is  the  How 
of  the  voice  in  reading  such  a  passage  as  the  following  : 

"  I  shall  not  think  my  employment  useless  or  ignoble,  if,  by  my  assistance,  for- 
eign nations  and  distant  ages  gain  access  to  the  propagators  of  knowledge,  and 
understand  the  teachers  of  truth ;  if  my  labors  afford  light  to  the  repositories  of 
science,  and  add  celebrity  to  Bacon,  to  Hooker,  to  Milton,  and  to  Boyle."— Johnson. 

Rhythm.  —  This  easy  and  melodious  flow  of  the  voice  is 
called  the  Rhythm.  It  depends  upon  the  proper  adjustment 
and  proportion  of  the  syllables  in  reference  to  the  accent. 

Both  in  Prose  and  Poetry. —This  Rhythm  may  exist  in  prose.  It 
always  does  exist  in  prose  that  is  well  written.  The  passage  just 
quoted  from  Johnson  may  be  divided  into  feet,  varying  in  length 
from  two  syllables  to  five,  and  occurring  in  parts  with  some  degree 
of  regularity.  But  if  a  rhythm  may  be  detected  in  prose,  how 
much  more  is  it  to  be  looked  for  in  poetry,  where  the  accents  occur 
with  almost  undeviating  uniformity,  and  never  with  more  than  two 
intervening  syllables. 

Rhythm  a  Source  of  Pleasure.  —  Such  is  the  constitution  of  the 
human  mind,  that  we  cannot  perceive  this  rhythm  without  receiving 
a  pleasure  therefrom.  This  pleasure  is  based  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  that  by  which  we  are  pleased  with  the  sight  of  architectural 
proportions,  or  the  sound  of  harmonious  music.  It  is  the  percep- 
tion of  beauty  in  whatever  is  symmetrical. 

The  Original  Question.  —  This  brings  us  back  to  a  direct  answer, 
in  part  at  least,  to  the  question  with  which  we  set  out,  namely,  the 
same  sentiments  being  expressed  by  the  same  words,  what  is  it  that 
makes  the  poetical  arrangement  of  the  words  more  pleasing  than 


VERSIFICATION— RHYTHM.  225 

the  prose  arrangement  ?    I  answer :  It  is  the  greater  perfection  of  its 
Rhythm. 

Difference  of  Prose  and  Poetry  as  to  Rhythm. —  This  rhythm  exists 
indeed,  in  both  prose  and  poetry,  but  in  the  latter  it  is  in  much 
greater  perfection  than  in  the  former.  Poetry  indeed  contains  a 
recognized  system  of  cadences,  so  divided  as  to  present  sensible 
responses  to  the  ear,  at  regular,  proportioned,  and  convenient  dis- 
tances; prose,  on  the  other  hand,  is  composed  of  all  sorts  of  cadences, 
arranged  without  attention  to  obvious  rule,  divided  into  clauses  that 
have  no  ascertained  proportion,  and  presenting  no  responses  to  the 
ear  at  any  legitimate  or  determined  intervals. 

The  Conclusion.  —  The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  is,  that  a 
part  of  the  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  a  poetical  arrangement  of 
syllables  depends  upon  the  perfection  of  its  rhythm  ;  and  the  per- 
fection of  its  rhythm  depends  upon  its  cadences  being  so  arranged 
as  to  give  that  precise  mixture  of  uniformity  with  variety  in  the 
sound,  which  is  found  to  be  most  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Bhyme.—  Rhythm,  however,  is  not  the  only  source  of  pleasure  in 
verse.  Another  equally  marked  is  to  be  found  in  Rhyme.  Rhyme  is 
like  Rhythm  in  one  respect.  It  is  something  dependent  upon  sound, 
and  independent  of  the  sense.  The  chiming  of  one  syllable  with 
another,  at  certain  regulated  and  recognized  intervals,  gives  a  pleas- 
ure to  the  hearer  entirely  different  from,  and  additional  to,  that  de- 
rived from  the  thought  or  meaning. 

Division  of  the  Subject.—  Having  thus  shown  in  a  general  manner 
what  is  the  true  foundation  of  verse,  I  proceed  to  explain  some  of 
the  terms  used  in  reference  to  it,  and  to  exhibit  some  of  the  forms 
employed.  This  will  be  done  under  the  several  heads  of  Rhythm, 
Rhyme,  Blank  Veese,  Mixed  Verse,  Stanzas,  Modeen  Verse, 
Elision. 

I.  RHYTHM. 

Rhythm  is  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  syllables  in  ref- 
erence to  sound. 

Versification.— Versification  is  simply  the  making  of  verses.  It  is 
the  mechanical  part  of  poetry. 

Poetry  .—  Poetry  is  a  more  general  term,  including  versification  and  something 

P 


226  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

more  important  in  addition.  There  may  be  correct  versification  without  poetry. 
There  may  indeed  be  correct  verse  without  sense.  A  prominent  exercise  in  the 
Latin  schools  of  England  consists  in  making  what  are  called  "  nonsense  verses," 
the  object  being  simply  to  train  the  ear  to  accuracy  in  the  rules  of  prosody. 

Verse  is  used  in  works  on  Prosody  as  synonymous  with  line. 

A  line  is  called  a  verse,  from  the  Latin  "  verto,"  to  turn,  because  at  the  end  of 
a  line  we  turn  back  to  begin  a  new  line.  In  popular  language  verse  is  often  used 
incorrectly  for  "stanza." 

Stanza. —  A  stanza  is  a  number  of  lines  taken  together  and  so  ad- 
justed to  each  other  as  to  form  one  whole.  \ 

Couplet. —  Two  successive  lines  rhyming  together  form  a  couplet. 

Triplet. —  Three  successive  lines  rhyming  together  form  a  triplet. 

Quatrain. —  A  stanza  of  four  lines  is  called  a  quatrain. 

Foot. —  Foot  is  synonymous  with  metre.  It  is  the  smallest  part 
or  division  of  a  line,  being  the  unit  by  which  a  line  is  measured. 

A  foot  includes  an  accented  syllable  and  the  unaccented  syllable  or  syllables, 
if  there  are  any,  which  accompany  it  in  making  the  accentual  divisions  of  a 
line. 

Length  of  a  Line. —  The  length  of  a  line  is  expressed  by  the  number 
of  accents  or  feet  which  it  contains. 

There  is  no  natural  or  necessary  limit  to  the  length  of  a  line.  A  line  very 
short,  containing  only  one  foot  or  two  feet,  is  lacking  in  dignity  and  seriousness, 
and  is  never  used  except  as  an  occasional  variety  among  lines  of  greater  length. 
On  the  other  hand,  very  long  lines  fatigue  the  attention,  and  are  now  generally 
abandoned. 

Number  of  Lengths  of  Line. —  Practically,  we  have  in  verse  only 
six  varieties  of  length;  namely,  lines  of  one  foot,  two  feet,  three 
feet,  four  feet,  five  feet,  and  six  feet,  and  these  lines  are  called 
severally,  Monometers,  Dimeters,  Trimeters,  Tetrameters,  Penta- 
meters, and  Hexameters. 

Kind  of  Foot. —  The  kind  of  foot  depends  upon  two  things ;  namely, 
the  number  of  unaccented  syllables  that  are  taken  with  the  accented 
one,  and  the  position  of  the  accented  syllable  with  reference  to  these 
unaccented  ones. 

The  number  of  possible  varieties  depends  of  course  upon  the  capabilities  of 
the  vocal  organs.  We  may  have,  in  the  first  place,  just  as  many  varieties  as  we 
can  conveniently  utter  syllables  before  taking  a  fresh  accent.    We  have  thus :  * 

*  In  this  chapter,  the  marks  -  -  are  used  to  indicate,  not  long  and  short  syllables, 
but  accented  and  unaccented  ones. 


VERSIFICATION— RHYTHM.  227 

Mercy",  a  foot  of  two  syllables. 

Merciful,  a  foot  of  three  syllables. 

Mercifully,  a  foot  of  four  syllables,  etc. 

Each  of  these  varieties,  secondly,  may  be  doubled,  trebled,  quadrupled,  etc., 
according  to  the  position  of  the  accented  syllable  in  reference  to  the  unaccented 

ones.    Thus : 

Merciful,  ^ 

Referee,  >        all  feet  of  three  syllables, 

Convention,  J 

yet  all  unlike,  the  first  having  the  accented  syllable  at  the  beginning,  the  second 
at  the  end,  and  the  third  in  the  middle. 

Greeks  and  Latins. —  The  Greeks  and  the  Latins  nsed  many  more 
varieties  of  feet  than  we  do.  Their  syllables  were  divided  into 
longs  and  shorts,  instead  of  accented  and  unaccented,  and  their 
prosody  was  much  more  precise  and  determinate  than  ours.  The 
popular  ear  among  them,  being  trained  to  greater  accuracy  and 
uniformity  in  the  pronunciation  of  syllables,  admitted  readily  greater 
variety  in  its  feet. 

Number  of  Kinds  of  Feet. —  Practically,  in  English,  we  are  limited 
in  verse  to  feet  of  two  syllables  and  feet  of  three  syllables,  and  to 
two  varieties  of  each,  namely,  with  the  accent  either  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  foot,  or  at  the  end. 

This  gives  us  our  four  varieties  of  feet  in  common  use : 

Iambus,      |  «     -  |  awake  )      -.  _. .  „  , , 

„,      .     '  -    ~  >     feet  of  two  syllables. 

Trochee,     |  -    «  |  mercy  J 

Anapaest,    |vv.|  referee     )      ,    .    _  A.  ,.  .. 

Dactyl,        |  -  I  v  |  merciful  }     feet  °f  three  SyllableS- 

We  have  a  fifth  kind  of  foot,  consisting  of  two  syllables  both  accented,  as  twi- 
light, lamplight,  outside,  hearsay,  etc.  Such  a  foot  is  called  a  Spondee.  But  we 
have  no  whole  lines  made  up  of  spondees.  Consequently  we  have  no  such  thing 
as  spondaic  verse. 

Kinds  and  Varieties  of  Verse. — We  have  in  English  the  four  kinds 
of  verse,  growing  out  of  the  kind  of  foot  exclusively  employed  in 
each,  namely,  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapaestic,  and  Dactylic;  and  in 
each  kind,  six  varieties,  growing  out  of  the  number  of  feet  used  in 
the  line,  namely,  Monometer,  Dimeter,  Trimeter,  Tetrameter,  Penta- 
meter, and  Hexameter ;  making,  in  all,  twenty-four  varieties. 

These  kinds  and  varieties  are  exhibited  on  pages  229,  230. 

Formerly  a  Heptameter.  or  a  line  of  seven  feet,  was  much  in  use.  What  in 
Hymnology  is  called  Common  Metre  was  once  Heptameter.    Thus:  — 


228  COMPOSITION  AND    RIlETORia 

Hosanna  to  the  Prince  of  Light,  that  clothed  himself  in  clay ; 
Entered  the  iron  gates  of  death,  and  tore  the  bars  away. 

But  long  lines  like  this  being  found  unwieldy,  and  inconvenient  both  for  writing 
and  printing,  they  have  been  very  generally  broken  into  two  lines,  the  first  of 
four  feet,  and  the  second  of  three  feet.    Thus :  — 

Hosanna  to  the  Prince  of  Light, 

That  clothed  himself  in  clay; 
Entered  the  iron  gates  of  death, 

And  tore  the  bars  away. 

Macaulay's  Lays  are  an  example.  Part  of  them  are  printed  as  Heptameter 
lines,  and  part  are  broken  into  lines  alternately  of  four  feet  and  three  feet.  The 
Lay  of  Horatius  begins  thus :    • 

Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium 

By  the  Nine  Gods  he  swore, 
That  the  great  house  of  Tarquin 

Should  suffer  wrong  no  more. 

It  might  just  as  well  have  been  printed  as  follows : 

Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium  by  the  Nine  Gods  he  swore, 

That  the  great  house  of  Tarquin  should  suffer  wrong  no  more. 

The  Lay  of  Virginia  reads  thus : 

Ye  good  men  of  the  Commons,  with  loving  hearts  and  true. 
Who  stand  by  the  bold  Tribunes,  that  still  have  stood  by  you. 

The  metre  and  the  rhythm  are  really  the  same  as  in  Horatius,  and  the  verse 
might  have  been  printed  in  the  same  way.    Thus : 

Ye  good  men  of  the  Commons, 

With  loving  hearts  and  true, 
Who  stand  by  the  bold  Tribunes, 

That  still  have  stood  by  you. 

Iambic  Verse.  —  Until  quite  recently,  nine-tenths  of  English  verse 
was  Iambic,  and  probably  three-fourths  of  it  Iambic  Pentameter, 
which  is  the  English  heroic  verse,  corresponding  to  the  Hexameter 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin. 

Trochaic  verses  have  been  used,  though  sparingly,  for  two  centu- 
ries or  more.  Some  of  the  most  finished  Trochaics  in  the  language 
are  found  in  Dryden's  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day : 

|  SSftly*  |  sw^et  In  |  Lydiftn  |  measflres,  | 

I  Soon  hg  |  soothed  his  |  soul  to  |  pleasures.  | 

War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble; 

Honor  but  an  empty  bubble; 


VERSIFICATION— RHYTHM.  229 


Never  ending,  still  beginning, 

Fighting  still,  and  still  destroying, 
If  the  world  be  worth  thy  winning, 
Think,  oh!  think  it  worth  enjoying: 
Lovely  Thais  sits  beside  thee, 
Take  the  goods  the  gods  provide  thee. 


Poe's  Raven  is  in  trochaic  measure : 


|  Once  tip  I  on  a  |  midnight  |  dreary,  | 
While  I  wandered,  weak  and  weary, 
Over  many  a  quaint  and  curious 
Volume  of  forgotten  lore. 


1.  Iambic. 

1. —  Monometer,      I  «    - 

|  awake  | 

2. —  Dimeter,  |   w      -  |      *    -      | 

1 16  me  |  th6  rose  | 

3. —  Trimeter,  |  v        - 1  «     -    |  v  -      J 

|  In  plaices  far  |  and  near  j 

4. —  Tetrameter,      |«  •    |v     .     |     «      .  |  «.      | 

j  and  may  |  at  last  |  my  wea|ry  age  | 

5. —  Pentameter,     |«       -         |    *       -|w-        |v.|„      .    | 
|  htiw  loved  |  htiw  val|u6d  once  |  avails  |  thee  not  | 

6.—  Hexameter,      |      w      .      |«.    |«     .      |     -.        |     «    -|«      -         | 
j  thy  realm  |  f6rev|6r  lasts  |  thy  own  |  Messiah  reigns  | 


2.  Trochaic. 
1. —  Monometer,      |     -    «  | 
|  mercy  | 

2. —  Dimeter,  |  -        w  |      -         w    i 

|  on  the  |  mountain  | 

3.— Trimeter,  \       •       «    |    -         *     |      .       v      | 

|  when  otir  |  hearts  are  |  mourning  j 

4. —  Tetrameter,      |   -       «|       .  v   |   -       v|-  v    | 

|  lovely  |  Thais  |  sits  be  |  side  thee  | 

S. — Pentameter,     |   •«    |    •      v|      -       «  |  ■        «  |    -   «  | 
|  Satyrs  |  by"  the  |  brooklet  |  love  tti  |  dally  | 

6. —  Hexameter,      |-v|*        v    I      -  w  I    *        *»  j    •    v  |     •  «*    | 

I  on  a  |  mountain  |  stretched  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary"  |  willtiw  | 
20 


230  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Anapaests  have  been  in  current  use  for  a  long  time. 

Dactylio  verse  was  almost  unknown  in  English  until  the  present 
century.  Even  yet  it  is  not  in  general  use,  although  we  have  had 
some  brilliant  examples  of  it. 


3.  Anapaestic. 
1. —  Monometer,      |    v «  -    | 
|  referee  | 

2. —  Dimeter,  | «        «        -    I  v      v 

|  On  the  plain  |  as  he  strode  | 

3.—  Trimeter,  |«       «         -      I     v         w"        lw       w       -     I 

|  f  would  hide  |  with  the  beasts  |  6f  the  chase  | 

4. —  Tetrameter,      |       w      «  -|«  «      -        |  «        «     -  |  «    «        -| 

I  when  rep6|slng  that  night  |  6n  my  pal  |  let  6f  straw  | 

S. —  Pentameter,     |ww-  «      «        -  ««        *|w         w  - 

|  6n  the  warm  |  cheek  6f  youth  |  the  gay  smile  |  and  the  rose 

|ww  -  I 

I  ever  blend  | 

6. —  Hexameter,      |«        v-        |«        v  .   |  «         «-|«v 

|  but  the  leaves  I  are  begin  |nlng  to  wlth|er  and  droop 

u  w  I   v      v       »       I 

I  and  they  die  |  In  a  day  | 


4.  Dactylic. 
1. —  Monometer,  -    w   | 

|  merciful  | 

2.— Dimeter,  |    -         «    w    |    -     v   v  | 

|  take  her  Up  |  tenderly  | 

3. —  Trimeter,  |     •    v«       |.  v«|    .    w         v   | 

|  weary  and  |  worn  she  a  |  waited  th6e  | 

4. —  Tetrameter,      |-.«        «|-«         wf"  •»  v   |  •      *       «| 

|  faded  the  |  vap6rs  that  |  seemed  t6  Cn|  compass  him  j 

S. —  Pentameter,     \  -        «       v|-w  v|-w        «     |      .     «        w 

|  life  hath   Its  |  pleasures  but  |  fading    are  |  they  as  the 
I    -    —  I 

I  floweret  | 

6. —  Hexameter,      |-«        v|-w        w  .         «  «  I    -        •         *» 

|  over   the  I  valley   with  |  speed  like   the  |  wind    all  thft 

I      -         -     «l    -    —      I 
|  steeds  were  a  |  galloping  | 


VERSIFICATION— RIIYME.  231 

Witness  the  Boat  Song  in  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake : 

|  Hail  t6  the  |  chief  whS  In  |  triumph  ad|vances! 
Honored  and  blest  be  the  evergreen  pine ! 
Long  may  the  tree,  in  his  banner  that  glances. 
Flourish,  the  shelter  and  grace  of  our  line ! 
Heaven  send  it  happy  dew, 
Earth  lend  it  sap  anew, 
Gayly  to  bourgeon,  and  broadly  to  grow, 
While  every  Highland  glen 
Sends  our  shout  back  again, 
Roderick  Vich  Alpine  dhu,  ho!  ieroe! 

Hood's  Bridge  of  Sighs : 

|  One  m6re  un  |  fortunate,  | 
7      Weary  of  breath, 
Rashly  importunate, 
Gone  to  her  death! 

Tennyson's  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade: 

|  CannSn  t6  |  right  6f  them,  | 
Cannon  to  left  of  them, 
Cannon  in  front  of  them. 

Volleyed  and  thundered: 
Stormed  at  with  shot  and  shell, 
Boldly  they  rode  and  well, 
Into  the  jaws  of  death, 
Into  the  mouth  of  hell. 

Rode  the  six  hundred ! 

Heber's  Epiphany  Hymn : 

|  Brightest  and  |  best  6f  the  |  sons  6f  the  |  morning,  | 

Dawn  on  our  darkness  and  lend  us  thine  aid, 
Star  of  the  East,  the  horizon  adorning, 
Guide  where  our  infant  Redeemer  is  laid. 

II.  RHYME. 

The  mechanical  arrangements  which  have  been  described  in  the 
last  few  pages  are  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting  the  Rhythm,  which 
is  one  leading  source  of  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  form  of  poetry. 
There  is,  however,  in  modern  verse,  an  additional  source  of  pleasure, 
of  the  same  nature  as  rhythm,  so  far  at  least  that  equally  with 
rhythm  it  depends  upon  sound,  though  quite  unlike  it  in  other  re- 
spects.    I  mean  Rhyme. 

Origin  of  Rhyme.  —  The  origin  of  Rhyme  is  involved  in  some  ob- 
scurity.    It  has  been  attributed  to  the  nations  of  Northern  Europe, 


232  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

to  the  Arabians,  and  to  the  early  Christians.  Rhyming  hymns  are 
found  among  the  writings  of  the  Latin  Fathers  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century.  Some  of  the  Latin  hymns  composed  by  the  monks 
of  the  middle  ages  are  very  sweet  and  beautiful.  The  following 
lines  are  from  a  hymn  on  the  Nativity,  written  by  a  German  monk 
of  the  ninth  century. 

Tribus  signis 
Deo  dignis 
Dies  ista  colitur: 
Tria  signa 
Laude  digna 
Coetus  his  persequitur. 
Stella  magos 
Duxit  vagos 
Ad  praesepe  Domini; 
Congaudentes 
Omnes  gentes 
Ejus  psallunt  nomini. 

Etymology  of  Rhyme.  —  The  word  "rhyme"  is  of  doubtful  ety- 
mology. It  is  sometimes  traced  to  the  Greek  rheo,  (peco,)  which,  how- 
ever, would  make  rheum,  not  rhyme.  The  word  is  spelled  by  some 
distinguished  scholars  "  rln'me."  Whatever  be  its  orthography  or  its 
etymology,  its  meaning  is  not  a  matter  of  doubt. 

Definition.  —  Rhyme  is  a  correspondence  in  sound  between 
syllables  which,  in  the  scheme  of  the  verse,  have  some  relation 
to  each  other. 

Explanation. — Not  every  correspondence  in  sound  makes  a  rhyme. 
It  is  only  when  the  syllables  so  consounding  are  in  some  way  related 
to  each  other,  as,  for  instance,  each  marking  the  end  of  a  line,  or 
marking  one  part  of  a  line  corresponding  to  another  part,  and  so  on. 

It  is  too  much,  we  daily  hear. 

To  wive  and  thrive  both  in  one  year.—Tusser. 

In  this  example,  "hear"  and  "year"  are  related  to  each  other  as 
each  marking  the  end  of  a  line,  and  "wive"  and  "thrive"  are  re- 
lated as  marking  corresponding  parts  of  the  same  line. 

Looation  of  Rhyme  not  Limited.  —  There  is  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  Rhyme  to  limit  its  use  to  the  end  of  a  word,  or  to  the  end  of  a 
line.  It  may  be  used  legitimately  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  or  at 
the  beginning,  the  middle,  or  even  in  the  quarters  of  a  line,  and  his- 


VERSIFICATION— RHYME.  233 

torically  it  is  found  in  all  these  positions ;  and  in  each  it  is  subject  to 
laws  which  do  not  necessarily  govern  it  elsewhere. 

Ehyme  Single,  Double,  etc. —  Rhyme  may  be  single,  double,  triple, 
quadruple,  etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  syllables  that  chime 
together. 

Double  rhymes  are  common. 

Look  not  thou  on  beauty's  charming, 
Sit  thou  still  when  kings  are  arming, 
Taste  not  when  the  wine-cup  glistens, 
Speak  not  when  the  people  listens.— Scott. 

Triple  rhymes  are  more  rare,  and  are  mostly  imitated  from  the 
Italian,  in  which  they  abound. 

Oh  ye  immortal  gods,  what  is  theogony  f 

Oh  thou  too  mortal  man.  what  is  philanthropy  f 
Oh  world  that  was,  and  is,  what  is  cosmogony  t 

Some  people  have  accused  me  of  misanthropy : 
And  yet  I  know  no  more  than  the  mahogany 

That  forms  this  desk,  of  what  they  mean :— Ly canthropy 
I  comprehend,  for  without  transforma/ion 

Men  become  wolves  on  every  slight  occasion. — Byron. 

More  Extended  Bhymes.  —  Rhymes  extending  to  more  than  three 
syllables  are  found  only  among  the  Arabians  and  Persians,  where 
sometimes  every  line  in  a  whole  poem  ends  in  the  same  sound,  and 
that  sound  extends  to  four  and  even  five  syllables. 

Ehyme  at  the  Beginning  of  a  Word. —  This  is  usually  called  Allite- 
ration, and  it  admits  of  three  varieties. 

(1.)  Where  the  correspondence  of  sound  is  between  two  initial  consonants;  as, 

And  now  is  religion  a  rider,  a  roamer  by  the  streets, 
A  Zeader  of  fove-days,  and  a  Zand-buyer.— Piers  Plowman. 

This  is  the  old  Saxon  alliteration.  It  prevailed  universally  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
verse,  and  in  that  of  many  of  the  other  northern  nations  cognate  to  the  Saxons,  and 
formed  indeed  the  governing  law  of  their  verse.  In  modern  English  this  conso- 
nantal alliteration  is  never  used  as  a  prevailing  law  of  the  verse,  but  occurs  fre- 
quently as  an  occasional  variety,  and  often  with  striking  and  beautiful  effect. 

Silently  sat  the  artist  alone. 

Carving  a  Christ  from  the  ivory  bone. 

Little  by  little,  with  toil  and  pain, 

He  won  his  way  through  the  sightless  grain. 

Boker's  Ivory- Carver. 

The  strength  he  r/ains  is  from  the  embrace  he  gives.— Pope. 
20* 


234  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

(2.)  Where  the  correspondence  of  sound  is  between  two  initial  vowels. 

This  is  said  to  have  been  a  common  method  of  rhyming  among  the  Irish.*  In 
English  it  is  used  only  as  an  occasional  alliteration,  and  to  give  increased  point 
to  an  antithesis. 

"Charm  ache  with  air." — Shakespeare. 

Oppression  is  the  same 
In  italy  or  India,  in  Austria  or  Albany. 

(3.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  includes  both  a  consonant  and  a  vowel ; 
as,  nding,  »%ming ;  Addling,  /feting. 

Rhyme  at  the  End  of  a  Word. — This  is  the  only  kind  of  correspond- 
ence in  sound  generally  recognized  as  rhyme.  This  likewise  admits 
of  three  varieties. 

(1.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  is  limited  to  the  consonants  following 
the  final  vowel ;  as,  comprehend  reprimand.  This  is  not  now  recognized  as  legit- 
imate rhyme,  though  said  to  have  once  been  common. 

(2.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  includes  the  final  vowel,  the  consonant 
sound  after  it,  and  the  consonant  sound  before  it. 

Bonaparte  the  rogue 
The  council  did  prorogue. 

This  is  called  the  rich  rhyme,  and  is  said  to  be  in  favor  among  some  races, 
though  distasteful  to  the  English  ear. 

(3.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  includes  the  final  vowel  and  the  con- 
sonant sound  after  it ;  as,  shout,  withotd. 

This  last  is  our  common  rhyme,  and  is  the  only  one  considered  as 
legitimate  in  modern  English  verse. 

Conditions  of  Single  Rhyme.  —  When  it  is  intended  in  English  to 
make  a  single  syllable  rhyme  to  another  in  the  manner  most  accept- 
able to  the  ear,  the  following  conditions  are  necessary : 

(1.)  The  rhyming  syllable  should  be  an  accented  one.  This  rule  is  violated  in 
such  an  example  as  the  following : 

The  fire  oft  times  he  kindfeM, 
His  hand  therewith  he  singe-eth, 

(2.)  The  vowel  of  the  rhyming  syllable,  together  with  the  consonant  or  conso- 
nants following  the  vowel,  should  be  of  precisely  the  same  sound  in  the  two 
syllables. 

Thus  "  breath"  does  not  rhyme  to  "  heath."  The  consonant  sounds  are  alike, 
but  the  vowel  sounds  are  not.  So  also  " disease"  does  not  rhyme  to  •*  increase," 
because,  while  the  vowel  sounds  are  alike,  the  consonant  sounds  differ.  It 
should  be  observed  too,  in  this  connection,  that  rhyme  is  entirely  a  matter  of 
sound,  not  of  spelling. 

•Guest's  English  Rhythms,  Vol.  I.,  p.  117. 


VERSIFICATION— RHYME.  235 

Then,  King  of  glory,  come, 

And  with  thy  favor  crown 
This  temple  as  thy  dome, 

This  people  as  thy  own. 

In  this  example  "  come  "  and  "  dome,"  "  crown  "  and  "  own,"  are  very  faulty 
as  rhymes,  though  corresponding  entirely  in  the  spelling. 

(3.)  The  vowel  in  each  of  the  rhyming  syllables  should  be  immediately  pre- 
ceded by  a  consonant,  not  by  another  vowel.    Thus, 

Howsoe'r 
Greet  the  ear, 

is  not  an  agreeable  rhyme.   The  vowels  o  and  e.  preceding  the  rhyming  syllables, 
produce  an  unpleasant  hiatus.    If  a  consonant  is  placed  before  one  of  them,  as 

Howsoe'er 
Greet  his  ear. 

the  rhyme  is  improved,  though  still  not  perfectly  agreeable.    By  putting,  in  like 
manner,  a  consonant  before  the  other,  as 

Now  or  ne'er 
Greet  his  ear, 
all  objection  is  removed. 

(4.)  The  consonantal  sound  thus  immediately  preceding  the  rhyming  vowel 
should  differ  in  the  two  syllables.  Thus  omit,  remit,  abound,  rebound,  are  not 
agreeable  rhymes.  They  constitute  the  objectionable  rich  rhyme,  before  described. 
What  the  ear  requires  is  a  difference  of  consonantal  sound  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  rhyming  vowel. 

(5.)  When,  in  a  stanza,  two  or  more  lines  rhyme  together,  and  two  or  more  con- 
tiguous lines  have  another  and  a  different  rhyme,  that  other  rhyme  should  differ 
from  the  first  in  its  vowel  as  well  as  in  its  consonant  sound.  Thus,  in  a  quatrain, 
if  the  four  lines  should  end  severally  in  the  words  time,  ride,  crime,  bide,  the  alter- 
nation would  not  be  entirely  satisfactory,  because  of  the  continued  recurrence 
of  the  i  sound.  Change  to  time,  rode,  crime,  bode,  and  the  ear  is  satisfied ;  the 
alternation  is  complete. 

Conditions  of  Double  and  Triple  Rhyme.  —  When  the  two  or  three 
final  syllables  of  one  word  rhyme  to  the  two  or  three  final  syllables 
of  another  word,  the  first  of  the  two  or  three  syllables  thus  rhyming 
together  should  be  made  to  observe  all  the  five  conditions  just  given 
for  single  rhyme ;  but,  in  the  remaining  syllable  or  syllables,  all  the 
elements  of  one,  that  is,  the  vowel,  the  consonant  before  it,  and  the 
consonant  after  it,  should  sound  exactly  the  same  as  the  correspond- 
ing elements  in  the  other. 

Thus:  treas-ure,  pleas-ure ;  tink-ling,  sprink-ling ;  i>hi-lan-thropy,  mi-san-thropy. 

The  rosy  light  is  dawning 

Upon  the  mountain's  brow; 
It  is  Sabbath  morning, 

Arise  and  pay  thy  vow. 


236  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

The  double  rhymes  in  this  example  are  incorrect,  the  first  syllables  in  each, 
"  dawn- "  and  "  morn- "  not  conforming  to  the  conditions  laid  down  for  single 
rhyme. 

Position  of  the  Rhyming  Word  in  the  Line.  —  I  have  spoken  of  the 
place  of  the  rhyme  in  the  word  to  which  it  belongs.  In  this  respect, 
the  rhyme  may  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  in  which 
case  it  is  usually  called  alliteration,  or  it  may  be  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  word,  in  which  case  it  constitutes  the  true  ordinary  rhyme.  It 
now  remains  to  speak  of  the  place  of  the  rhyming  word  in  the  line. 

Usual  Place.  —  In  the  more  formal  kinds  of  poetry,  the  rhyming 
word  is  usually  placed  at  the  end  of  the  line.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  only  place  where  it  can  be  legitimately  used.  Two  sections  of 
the  same  line  often  rhyme  to  each  other.  The  interlacings  of  the 
rhymes  in  these  ways  in  some  of  our  poets  is  curious  in  the  ex- 
treme. 

Then  up  with  your  cup,  till  you  stagger  in  speech, 

And  match  me  this  catch,  though  you  swagger  and  screech.— Scott. 

To  feed  my  need,  he  will  me  lead 

To  pastures  green  &nd  fat; 
He  forth  brought  me  to  libertie, 

To  waters  delicate.  —  Archb.  Parker. 

Variety  of  Forms.  —  It  would  take  a  volume  to  set  forth  fully  the 
various  forms  of  verse  occasioned  by  changing  the  position  and  the 
number  of  the  rhymes.  These  forms  are  sometimes  merely  curious. 
In  other  cases,  however,  they  are  used  with  almost  magical  effect. 

And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow, 

And  it  grew  wondrous  cold, 
And  ice  mosX-high  came  floating  by, 

As  green  as  emerald.— Coleridge. 

The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story ; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes, 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory.—  Tennyson. 

Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 

The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray.— Byron. 

It  is  too  much,  we  daily  hear, 

To  wive  and  thrive  both  in  one  year.— Tusser. 

Yet  none  but  one  the  sceptre  long  did  sway 

Whose  conquering  name  endures  until  this  day.—  Wallace. 

Let  other  poets  raise  a  fracas 

'Bout  vines  and  wines  and  drunken  Bacchus.— Burns. 


VERSIFICATION— BLANK    VERSE.  237 

And  then  to  see  how  ye 're  negleckit, 

How  huff'd  and  cuff'd  and  disrespeckit.— Burns. 

Freedom  in  Sectional  Ehymes.—  It  is  not  essential  that  these  sec- 
tional rhymes  should  conform  to  all  the  conditions  of  rhyme  at  the 
end  of  a  line.     Often  an  apt  consonantal  alliteration  answers  every 

purpose. 

But  he  has  gotten  to  our  grief 

Ane  to  succeed  him, 
A  chiel  wha'll  soundly  buff  our  beef, 
I  muckle  dread  him.— .Burns. 

And  do  I  hear  my  Jennie  own 

That  equal  transports  move  her? 
I  ask  for  dearest  life  alone, 

That  I  may  live  to  love  her.— Burns. 

Her  look  was  like  the  morning  star.— Burns. 

There  is  nothing  of  the  kind  in  the  language  finer  than  the  exam~ 
pie  last  quoted. 

ni.   BLANK  VERSE. 

Blank  Verse  is  verse  that  does  not  rhyme. 

Most  of  our  blank  verse  is  Iambic  pentameter.  In  this  are  writ- 
ten Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare,  and  three- 
fourths  at  least  of  the  rest  of  our  heroic  and  dramatic  verse.  So 
commonly  indeed  is  this  form  observed  by  those  who  have  written 
blank  verse,  that  many  have  imagined  it  to  be  the  only  form  suited 
to  that  species  of  composition.  This,  however,  is  a  mistake.  Blank 
verse  may  be  written  with  two,  three,  or  four  feet  to  the  line,  as 
well  as  with  five,  and  in  trochaic,  anapaestic,  or  dactylic  measure,  as 
well  as  in  iambic. 

Boker's  Song  of  the  Earth  contains  a  great  variety  of  blank 
verse,  in  different  metres  and  in  lines  of  different  lengths ;  as  the 
following  in  dactylic  measure: 

Hark  to  our  |  voices,  O  |  mother  of  |  nations ! 
Why  art  thou  dim  when  thy  sisters  are  radiant? 

Or  this  in  iambic : 

O  vex  |  me  not.  |  ye  ev|er  burn|ing  plan|ets; 
Nor  sister  call  me,  ye  who  me  afflict. 

Or  this  in  trochaic : 

Daughter  |  of  the  |  sober  |  twilight, 
Lustrous  planet,  ever  hanging. 


238  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Longfellow's  Hiawatha  is  a  familiar  specimen  of  blank  verse  in 
trochaic  tetrameter : 

|  Should  y6u  |  ask  me  |  whence  these  |  stories,  | 
Whence  these  legends  and  traditions, 
With  the  odors  of  the  forest, 
With  the  dew  and  damp  of  meadows, 
With  the  curling  smoke  of  wigwams, 
With  the  rushing  of  great  rivers, 
With  their  frequent  repetitions, 
And  their  wild  reverberations, 
As  of  thunder  in  the  mountains? 

Evangeline  also  is  in  blank  verse,  being  hexameter,  and  mainly 
dactylic. 

IV.   MIXED  VERSE. 

Law  of  English  Verse. —  The  prevailing  law  of  English 
verse  is  that  the  feet  in  any  one  line  shall  all  be  of  one  kind, 
that  is,  they  shall  all  be  iambuses,  trochees,  anapaests,  or  dac- 
tyls, and  the  line  be  accordingly  iambic,  trochaic,  anapaestic, 
or  dactylic. 

Classic  Verse  Different. — In  this,  our  verse  differs  essentially  from 
the  verse  of  the  ancients,  in  which  feet  of  different  kinds  are  mixed 
together  freely  in  the  same  line.  In  the  Latin,  for  instance,  the 
heroic  hexameter,  with  the  exception  of  the  sixth  foot,  may  have 
dactyls  or  spondees  indifferently,  according  to  the  choice  or  conven- 
ience of  the  writer;  and  these  feet  were  variously  combined  to 
suit  the  varying  turn  of  the  thought.  A  preponderance  of  dactyls 
gave  a  rapid  movement  to  the  verse,  suitable  to  a  light,  gay,  or 
beautiful  subject,  as  in  the  familiar  line  of  Virgil  describing  the 
horse-race : 

|  Quadrupeidante  pa|trem  s6n!|tu  quatlt  |  ungula  |  campum.  | 

In  reading  this  line  rapidly  one  seems  almost  to  hear  the  clattering 
of  the  horse's  hoofs.* 

A  preponderance  of  spondees,  on  the  other  hand,  made  the  move- 
ment of  the  verse  slow,  stately,  and  solemn.     An  example  familiar 

*  The  same  general  effect  was  intended  in  the  construction  of  the  English  hexame- 
ter given  on  page  230.  A  similar  and  still  more  striking  effect  is  produced  hy  two 
lines  of  Longfellow's  describing  the  galloping  of  a  horse: 

At  each  bound  he  could  feel  his  scabbard  of  steel 
Smiting  his  stallion's  flanks. 


VERSIFICATION— MIXED    VERSE.  239 

to  all  students  of  Virgil  is  that  in  which  he  describes  the  slow,  heavy 
motion  of  the  Cyclops  at  work  on  the  anvil : 

|  Oil'  In  |ter  se|se  mag|na  vl  |  brachla  |  tollunt.  | 

Mixed  Verse  in  English. —  Some  attempts  have  been  made  in  Eng- 
lish to  write  continued  poems  in  this  kind  of  mixed  verse.  The 
most  conspicuous  example  is  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  which  may 
be  described  as  a  poem  in  blank  verse,  hexameter,  and  prevailingly 
dactylic,  but  with  a  free  intermixture  of  iambuses,  trochees,  ana- 
paests, and  spondees.  The  following  lines  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
point: 

|  This  Is  the  I  forest  prfjmeval.  The  |  murmuring  |  pines  and  the  |  hemlScks,  | 
|  Beardgd  with  |  moss  and  In  |  garments  |  green,  Indlsjtinct  In  the  |  twilight,  | 
|  Stand  like  |  Druids  6f  |  old,  with  |  voices  |  sad  and  pr6|phetlc.  | 

Of  Doubtful  Success. —  Even  the  genius  of  Longfellow,  who  is  one 
of  the  best  rhythmists  known  to  our  literature,  has  not  yet  quite 
reconciled  the  English  ear  to  this  kind  of  verse.  Our  syllables  and 
accents  are  not  sufficiently  fixed  and  determinate  to  enable  ordi- 
nary readers  to  perceive  the  rhythmus  without  that  conscious  effort 
which  of  itself  mars  the  pleasure. 

A  Successful  Specimen — Perhaps  the  most  successful  specimen 
ever  produced,  of  English  verse  constructed  on  the  model  of  the 
Latin  hexameter,  is  the  following: 

|  Clearly  the  |  rest  I  be  |  hold  6f  the  |  dark-eyed  |  sons  6f  A|cMia;  | 
I  Known  to  me  |  well  are  the  |  faces  Sf  |  all ;  their  |  names  I  re  |  member ;  | 
|  Two,  two  |  only  re  [main,  wh6m  I  |  see  n6t  a|mong  the  c6m|manders,  | 
Castor  fleet  in  the  car,  Polydeuces  brave  with  the  cestus—  | 
Own  dear  brethren  of  mine,— one  parent  loved  us  as  infants. 
Are  they  not  here  in  the  host,  from  the  shores  of  loved  Laeedaemon, 
Or,  though  they  came  with  the  rest  in  the  ships  that  bound  through  the  waters, 
Dare  they  not  enter  the  fight  or  stand  in  the  council  of  heroes, 
All  for  fear  of  the  shame  and  the  taunts  my  crime  has  awakened? 
So  said  she;  — they  long  since  in  Earth's  soft  arms  were  reposing 
There,  in  their  own  dear  land,  their  fatherland,  Laeedaemon.— Hawtrey. 

Condition  of  Success. —  Mixed  verse  seems  to  succeed  best  when 
combined  with  rhyme,  and  when  the  lines  are  comparatively  short. 

A  fine  example  of  this  occurs  in  Longfellow's  Golden  Legend. 
It  is  the  soliloquy  of  Friar  Claus  in  the  wine-cellar  of  the  convent. 

|  T  al|ways  en'ter  this  sa[cr£d  place  | 

j  With  a  thoQght|ful,  sol|emn,  and  rev|erent  pace,  | 


240  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

|  Pausing  |  long  e|nough  6n  |  each  stair  | 

|  T6  breathe  |  an  ejac|ulato|ry  prayer,  | 

|  And  a  benjedicltlon  on  |  the  vines  | 

|  Which  produce  |  these  va|r!6us  sorts  |  6f  wines.  | 

Another  equally  signal  example  is  found  in  Boker's  Ivory-Carver. 

|  Silently"  |  sat  the  |  artist  a!16ne, 

I  Carving  a  |  Christ  from  the  |  Iv6ry  |  bone. 

I  Little  by  little,  |  with  toil  |  and  pain,  | 

|  H6  won  |  his  way  |  thr6ugh  the  sight|iess  grain,  | 

|  That  held  |  and  yet  hid  |  the  thing  |  he  sought,  | 

|  Till  the  work  |  sto6d  up,  |  a  growling  thought.  | 

Sheridan's  Ride,  by  Read,  and  Barbara  Frietchie,  by  Whittier,  are 
familiar  examples  of  the  same  peculiarity. 

|  Up  fr6m  the  |  South  at  |  break  6f  |  day, 

j  Bringing  t6  |  Winchester  |  fresh  dls|may, 

|  The  affright |ed  air  |  with  &  shud|der  bore,  | 

j  Like  a  her |  aid  In  haste,  1 16  the  chief]  tain's  door,  | 

|  The  ter|rlbie  grum|bie,  and  rum|bie,  and  roar,  | 

|  Telling  the  |  battle  |  was  on  |  6nce  more,  | 

|  And  Sher|Idan  twen|ty  miles  |  away.  | 

|  Up  from  the  |  meadtiws  |  rich  with  |  corn, 
|  Clear  In  the  |  cool  September  |  morn, 
j  The  clus|ter'd  spires  |  6f  Frederick  stand,  | 
|  Green-wall'd  |  by  the  hills  |  6f  Maryland.  | 

V.  STANZAS. 

A  Stanza  is  a  number  of  lines  taken  together,  and  so  ad- 
justed to  each  other  as  to  form  one  whole. 

A  stanza  may  consist  of  almost  any  number  of  lines,  from  two  upwards.  la 
the  formation  of  stanzas,  our  poets  have  an  unlimited  license,  which  they  have 
used  freely,  and  not  always  with  entire  discretion.  Some  particular  stanzas  have 
acquired  historical  celebrity. 

Rhythm-Royal. — The  Rhythm-Royal,  or  seven-line  stanza,  invented 
by  Chaucer,  is  one  of  these.  It  is  in  iambic  pentameter.  Here  is 
an  example  from  Shakespeare : 

So  on  the  tip  of  his  subduing  tongue,  1\ 

All  kind  of  arguments  and  question  deep,  2 -J 

All  replication  prompt,  and  reason  strong,  3  A 

For  his  advantage  still  did  wake  and  sleep:  4S 

To  make  the  weeper  laugh,  the  laugher  weep,  5 

He  had  the  dialect  and  different  skill,  f\ 

Catching  all  passions  in  his  craft  of  will.  7 


VERSIFICA  TION— STANZAS.  241 

Construction  of  the  Stanza. —  In  this  stanza,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
diagram,  the  first  four  lines  make  an  ordinary  quatrain,  the  lines 
rhyming  alternately ;  the  fifth  line  repeats  the  rhyme  of  the  fourth, 
and  the  last  two  form  a  couplet. 

Spenserian  Stanza. — Another  still  more  celebrated  stanza  is  that 
invented  by  Spenser,  and  known  as  the  Spenserian  Stanza.  It  is 
the  stanza  in  which  the  Faerie  Queene  was  written.  The  following 
is  the  first  stanza  of  that  poem. 

A  gentle  Knight  was  pricking  on  the  plain, 

Ycladd  in  mightie  armes  and  silver  shielde, 
Wherein  old  dints  of  deepe  woundes  did  remaine, 

The  cruel  markes  of  many  a  bloody  fielde; 

Yet  armes  till  that  time  did  he  never  wield: 
His  angry  steede  did  chide  his  foaming  bitt, 

As  much  disdayning  to  the  curbe  to  yielde: 

Full  jolly  knight  he  seemed,  and  faire  did  sitt. 

As  one  for  knightly  giusts  and  fierce  encounters  fitt. 

Construction  of  the  Stanza. — The  Spenserian  Stanza,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  foregoing  diagram,  consists  of  nine  lines,  all  iambic 
pentameter,  except  the  last,  which  is  hexameter. 

In  respect  to  the  rhyme,  the  construction  of  the  stanza  is  as  fol- 
lows: First,  there  are  two  ordinary  quatrains,  with  lines  rhyming 
alternately.  These  quatrains  are  then  tied  together  by  the  last  line 
of  the  first  quatrain  rhyming  with  the  first  line  of  the  second  qua- 
train. After  the  two  quatrains  are  thus  completed,  a  ninth  line  is 
added,  rhyming  with  the  eighth.  This  ninth  line  has  a  peculiar  and 
very  pleasing  effect.  It  seems  to  come  in  as  a  supplementary  har- 
mony,—  a  sort  of  "linked  sweetness  long  drawn  out,"  on  which  the 
ear  loves  to  linger. 

Its  Uses. —  This  stanza  has  been  found  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to 
long  poems.  The  most  successful  cultivator  of  it  among  recent 
poets  is  Byron,  a  large  part  of  whose  poetry  is  written  in  it- 
Sonnet  Stanza. —  Of  all  the  stanzas  that  bear  a  recognized  and  well- 
defined  character,  none  is  more  elaborate  in  its  construction  than 
that  appropriated  to  the  Sonnet. 

Tts  Construction. —  The  Sonnet  stanza  consists  of  fourteen  lines,  iambic  pen- 
tameter.  It  is  divided  into  two  distinct  portions,  called  the  Major  and  the  Minor. 
The  Major  division  consists  of  eight  lines,  called  an  Octave,  and  has  but  two 
rhymes.    The  Minor  division  consists  of  six  lines,  called  the  Sestette,  and  has 
21  Q 


242  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

sometimes  three  rhymes,  sometimes  two.  The  Octave  is  composed  of  two 
quatrains;  in  each  quatrain,  the  first  and  fourth  lines  form  one  rhyme,  the 
second  and  third  form  the  other.  Furthermore,  the  rhyme  of  the  first  and 
fourth  in  one  quatrain  is  the  same  as  the  rhyme  of  the  first  and  fourth  in  the 
other;  also,  that  of  the  second  and  third  in  one  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  second 
and  third  in  the  other.  Thus  the  whole  Octave  is  thoroughly  compacted  and 
knit  together,  while  each  of  the  two  parts  has  an  organization  of  its  own.  The 
Sestette  is  not  so  fixed  and  rigid  in  its  structure.  One  of  its  most  common 
forms  is  contained  in  the  following  Sonnet  from  Milton.  In  this  there  are  three 
rhymes;  the  first  line  rhymes  to  the  fourth,  the  second  to  the  fifth,  and  the  third 
to  the  sixth.  Thus  the  Sestette,  equally  with  the  Octave,  is  thoroughly  knit  to- 
gether and  compacted  in  itself.  Unity  of  the  Whole.— To  prevent  the  two 
parts  from  swaying  apart,  care  is  usually  taken  that  there  shall  be  no  gram- 
matical break  in  passing  from  the  one  to  the  other,  and  thus  the  whole  structure 
is  made  one.* 

1  When  I  consider  how  my  life  is  spent 

2  Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 

3  And  that  one  talent,  which  is  death  to  hide, 

4  Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more  bent 

5  To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 

6  My  true  account,  lest  he,  returning  chide; 

7  "Doth  God  exact  day -labor,  light  denied?" 

8  I  fondly  ask.    But  Patience,  to  prevent 

9  That  murmur,  soon  replies,  "  God  doth  not  need 

10  Either  man's  work,  or  his  own  gifts.    Who  best 

11  Bear  his  mild  yoke,  they  serve  him  best.    His  state 

12  Is  kingly;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed, 

13  And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest; 

14  They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait." 

Psalm  and  Hymn  Stanzas. — The  variety  of  stanzas  in  successful 
use  is  almost  endless.  It  would  be  impossible  in  a  work  like  this  to 
describe,  or  even  enumerate  them.  It  may  be  proper,  however,  to 
notice  briefly  those  most  commonly  used  in  psalms  and  hymns  for 
public  worship.  The  three  most  common  of  all  are  those  known 
severally  as  Long,  Short,  and  Common  Metre.  These  are  all  qua- 
trains, and  all  in  iambic  metre;  so  far  they  agree.  But  the  Long 
Metre  stanza  consists  of  tetrameters;  the  Common  Metre  has  its 
first  and  third  lines  tetrameter,  and  its  second  and  fourth  trimeter; 
the  Short  Metre  has  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  trimeter, 
while  its  third  is  tetrameter. 

The  following  formula  exhibits  to  the  eye  the  construction  of 
these  three  familiar  stanzas: 


♦See  the  "Book  of  the  Sonnet."  by  Leitrh  Hunt  and  S.  Adams  Lee  (Roberts 
Brothers)  !"<>r  ail  exhaustive  discussion  of  everything  pertaining  to  the  history  and 
structure  of  the  Sonnet. 


VERSIFICATION— STANZAS.  243 


Long  Metre. 


|w-|v-|v-|v- 
|v-|v-|v-|v- 
|  v  -  I  -  -  I  -  -  I  *  - 
I      v       -      I       w       -      I      v       -       I       w       - 


Common  Metre. 

|      w      -      I      v      -      |      „      -      |      *      -      | 

i  •:  -  I  r '-  I  -  -  I 

|v-|v-|.-|w-| 

I  i  -  I  ,  -  I  *  -  I 

Short  Metre. 
I     -     "     I     «     "     I     -     "     I 

|      „      -      |      v      -      I      w      -      I 
|„-|v-|v-|v-| 

In  respect  to  rhyme,  the  stanzas  vary.  Sometimes  the  lines 
rhyme  together  in  couplets,  the  first  rhyming  to  the  second,  and 
the  third  rhyming  to  the  fourth.     Thus : 

Lord,  thou  hast  searched  and  seen  me  through; 
Thine  eye  commands  with  piercing  view 
My  rising  and  my  resting  hours, 
My  heart  and  flesh,  with  all  their  powers. 

Sometimes  the  rhyme  alternates,  the  first  responding  to  the  third, 
and  the  second  to  the  fourth. 

Before  Jehovah's  awful  throne, 

Ye  nations  bow  with  sacred  joy : 
Know  that  the  Lord  is  God  alone: 

He  can  create,  and  he  destroy. 

Frequently  also  the  first  and  third  are  without  rhyme. 

Almighty  God,  thy  word  is  cast, 

Like  seed,  upon  the  ground; 
Now  let  the  dew  of  heaven  descend, 

And  righteous  fruits  abound. 

Long  Particular  Metre.  —  One  stanza,  in  which  a  few  of  our 
hymns  are  written,  is  called  Long  Particular  Metre.  It  is  in  iambic 
metre,  and  consists  of  six  lines,  all  tetrameter,  the  third  and  sixth 
rhyming  together,  and  the  others  rhyming  in  couplets.     The  effect 


244  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

is  very  pleasing  to  the  ear,  and  it  seems  rather  surprising  that  the 
stanza  has  not  been  more  cultivated  by  our  hymn  writers.  The 
following  is  an  example : 

I'll  praise  my  Maker  with  my  breath, 
And  when  my  voice  is  lost  in  death, 

Praise  shall  employ  my  nobler  powers: 
My  days  of  praise  shall  ne'er  be  past, 
While  life  and  thought  and  being  last, 

Or  immortality  endures. 

Hallelujah  Metre. — Another  stanza  of  considerable  celebrity  among 
psalms  and  hymns  is  that  known  as  Hallelujah  Metre.  It  is  in  iambic 
metre,  and  consists  of  eight  lines.  The  first  four  are  trimeters, 
rhyming  alternately.  The  last  four  are  dimeters,  with  the  first 
rhyming  to  the  fourth,  and  the  second  rhyming  to  the  third.   Thus: 

Lord  of  the  worlds  above, 

How  pleasant  and  how  fair 
The  dwellings  of  thy  love, 
Thy  earthly  telnplgs  are ! 
To  thine  abode 
My  heart  aspires 
With  warm  desires, 
To  see  my  God. 

The  sixth  and  seventh  lines  are  often  printed  as  one.    Thus : 

They  go  from  strength  to  strength, 

Through  this  vale  of  tears, 
Till  each  arrives  at  length, 
Till  each  in  heaven  appears; 
O  glorious  seat, 
Where  God  our  King  shall  thither  bring 
Our  willing  feet! 

Other  Metres.  —  No  names  have  been  given  to  the  various  stanzas 
invented  for  those  hymns  which  are  in  trochaic,  anapcestic,  or  dac- 
tylic metre.  In  the  hymn-books,  they  are  absurdly  called  6's,  7's, 
8's,  etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  syllables  in  a  line,  as  if  that 
alone  gave  any  clue  to  the  rhythmic  movement. 

With  all  my  powers  of  heart  and  tongue 
is  8's  just  as  much  as 

Guide  me,  O  thou  great  Jehovah. 

The  difference  between  the  lines  is  not  in  the  number  of  syllables, 
but  in  the  movement.     One  is  iambic,  the  other  trochaic. 


VERSIFICA  TION—  STANZAS.  245 

The  proper  way  of  designating  such  metres  is  to  add  the  name  of 
the  verse  (that  is  Anapaestic,  Dactylic,  Trochaic,  etc.,)  immediately 
after  the  figures  representing  the  number  of  syllables.     Thus : 

"  Saviour,  visit  thy  plantation,"  —  8's,  7's,  4's,  Trochaic. 

"Jesus,  lover  of  my  soul,1'  —  7's,  Trochaic. 

"Sweet  the  moments,  rich  in  blessing,"  —  8's  and  7's,  Trochaic. 

"I  would  not  live  alway :  I  ask  not  to  stay,"  —  ll's,  Anapaestic. 

"Thou'rt  gone  to  the  grave,  but  we  will  not  deplore  thee,"  — 
12's  and  ll's,  Anapcestic. 

"The  voice  of  free  grace  cries,  Escape  to  the  mountain,"  —  12's, 
Anapmtic. 

"Daughter  of  Zion,  awake  from  thy  sadness,"  —  ll's,  alternately 
Dactylic  and  Anapcestic. 

"Brightest  and  best  of  the  sons  of  the  morning,"  —  ll's  and  10's, 
Dactylic. 

"Come,  ye  disconsolate,  where'er  ye  languish,"  —  ll's  and  10's, 
Dactylic. 

The  formulas  for  these  metres  are  exhibited  in  the  following 
tables : 

8's,  7's,  4's,  Trochaic. 
8.      |  -  v  |  -  r  |  -  *  |  -  *  | 

7.  [  —  |   —  |  —  !  - 

8.  |     -  W     |     -   V     |     -  V     |     -  V     | 

7.      |   _  w   |   _  w   |   _  v   |    _ 

4.  |   -  *   |   -  -  | 

7.      |   -  V    |   -  V   |   -  *   |   -  . 

7's,  Trochaic.  J 

7.  |-w|-v|-v|- 

7.      |  -  -   |  -  -  |   -  *   |  - 
7.      |  -  -  J  -  v  f  ->  |  - 

7.  |     -    W      |     -    V      |     -    V     |     - 

8's  and  7's,  Trochaic. 

8.  |   -  „   |   _  .   |   _  .   |   -  „  | 

7.  |  -  „  |  -  «  |  -  •  |  - 

8.  |    -  v    |    -  W    |    -  -    |    -  V    | 
7.       |    -  V    |    -  „    |    -  V    |    - 

21* 


246  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

ll's,  Anapaestic, 

11.    w   -     |     w   w    -     I     w   w   -     I     w   w   -     I 

11.  W  _  I  WW  _  I  w  M  _  I  w  W  _  I 

11.    w    -     I      w    v    -     I     w    „    -     I      w    w    -     I 

11.  w—     I     w   w   —     I     ww—     1     wv—     I 

12's  and  ll's,  Anapastic. 

12.  w   -     |     w   w   -     |     w    w   -     |     w   w   -     I     „ 

11.  w    -     I     w    w    -      I     w    w    -     I     w    w    -     I 

12.  w    -      I     w    w   -     I      w    w    -     I     w    w    -     I     V 

11.  w   -     I     w   w   -     I     w   w   -     I     w   w   -     I 

12's,  Anapaestic. 

12.  w    -  |  w    w    -  I  w    w  -  I  w   w    -  I  V 

12.  w    -  I  w    w    -  I  w    w  -  I  w    w    -  I  w 

12.  w    -  I  w    w    -  I  w    w  -  I  w    w    -  I  w 

12.  w    -  I  w    w    -  I  w    w  -  I  w    w    -  I  w 

ll's,  alternately  Dactylic  and  Anap»3tict 

11.      |-ww| |_w„|_v  (Dactylic.) 

11.  v-|ww-|ww-|ww-|       (Anapaestic.) 

11.      |_ww|-ww|-ww|-w  (Dactylic.) 

11.  w-|ww-|ww-|ww-|       (Anapaestic) 

ll's  and  10's  Dactylic. 

11.       |    _  v  w    |    -  w  w    |    -  w  w    |    -  w 

10.  |      -    w    w      |      -    w    w      |      -    w    w      |      - 

11.  I      _    w    w     I     _    w    w     I     _    w    w     I      _    w 
10.  I     -    w    w     I     -    w    w     I      -    w    w     I     _ 

"Begone,  unbelief,  my  Saviour  is  near,"  is  usually  designated  as 
10's  and  ll's.  The  true  construction  of  these  stanzas  is  obscured 
by  the  way  in  which  it  is  printed.  For  typographical  convenience 
and  economy  of  space,  two  lines  are  printed  as  one.  If  the  hymn 
be  printed  in  stanzas  of  eight  lines,  the  true  construction  will  at 
once  appear,  and  the  proper  designation  will  be  5's  and  6's,  Ana- 
paestic.   Thus : 

I 


Begone,  unbelief, 

5.     v  - 

|        WW 

My  Saviour  is  near, 

5.     w  - 

|        WW 

And  for  my  relief, 

5.     -  - 

|        WW 

Will  surely  appear: 

5.     v  - 

|       WW 

VERSIFICATION— MODERN    VERSE.  247 

By  prayer  let  me  wrestle,  6.  w  -  |  «  «  _   |   w 

And  He  will  perform;  5.  »  -  j  »  •»,-  | 

With  Christ  in  the  vessel,  6.  *  -  J  v  v  -  |  .  w 

I  smile  at  the  storm.  5.  *  -  I  w  w  -   I 


VI.    MODERN  VERSE  ACCENTUAL,  NOT  SYLLABIC. 

Modern  poetry,  especially  English  poetry,  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  ancients  by  the  manner  in  which  the  verses 
are  measured,  or  rather  by  the  manner  in  which  we  obtain 
the  foot  or  measuring  unit. 

Ancient  Verse.  —  In  Latin  and  Greek,  syllables  are  divided  into 
long  and  short,  two  short  syllables  being  counted  as  equal  to  one 
long.  A  foot  in  those  languages  is  determined  by  the  length  of 
time  occupied, —  and  the  law  of  the  verse  is  satisfied  by  making  the 
foot  of  the  right  length,  without  reference  to  the  number  of  syllables 
or  the  position  of  the  accent. 

Example.— Take  for  instance  the  word  fund'us,  and  its  derivatives  funda'men, 
fundament'um.  In  these  three  words,  the  syllable  fund-  is  invariably  long.  No 
shifting  of  the  accent,  no  change  of  termination,  affects  the  character  of  that 
syllable,  or  its  availability  for  the  purpose  of  versification.  It  still  makes  one- 
half  a  foot.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  English  words  hu'man,  human'ity,  human- 
Ua'rian,  the  availability  of  the  first  syllable  hu-  for  versification,  is  changed  by 
the  changing  of  the  accent.    According  to  this  view, 

Rights  of  English  Syllables. —  A  syllable  in  English  has  no  inher- 
ent, indefeasible  rights  of  its  own,  but  is  subject  to  the  caprice  of 
the  accent^  which  makes  the  same  identical  syllable,  now  the  third, 
and  now  the  half,  of  a  foot,  now  a  part  of  an  iambus,  now  of  a  tro- 
chee, now  of  an  anapaest,  and  now  of  a  dactyl. 

The  Difference. —  Modern  verse  is  governed  by  the  accent; 
ancient  verse  was  governed  by  the  syllables,  which  had  cer- 
tain fixed  and  determinate  lengths.  Modern  verse,  therefore, 
is  accentual ;  ancient  verse  was  syllabic. 

Importance  of  this  Distinction. —  This  distinction,  once  made  thor- 
oughly familiar,  will  save  a  world  of  technical  rules,  and  will  throw 
light  upon  many  points  connected  with  the  versification  of  Chaucer, 
Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Milton,  which  were  stumbling-blocks  to 
Pope  and  Dryden.     The  four  poets  first  named,  whether  with  or 


248  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

without  any  definite  theory  on  the  subject,  wrote  according  to  the 
genius  of  the  language  and  the  dictates  of  a  cultivated  ear.  That 
is,  they  wrote  accentual  verse.  The  two  latter,  desiring  to  refine 
upon  the  subject,  and  not  comprehending  in  this  respect  the  true 
genius  of  modern  verse,  attempted  to  subject  it  to  the  rules  of  the 
classic  models. 

Mistake  of  Pope  and  Dryden. — Setting  out  with  an  erroneous  theory 
of  what  English  verse  ought  to  be,  they  found  in  their  predecessors 
much  that  was  pronounced  faulty,  that  was  at  least  contrary  to  the 
arbitrary  rules  which  they  had  made  for  the  government  of  verse, 
although  they  could  not  but  pronounce  even  the  objectionable  pas- 
sages highly  beautiful  and  harmonious.  Their  procedure  in  this 
respect  was  about  as  wise  as  it  would  be  for  a  painter  to  represent 
the  Cavaliers  and  the  Roundheads,  or  the  Canterbury  Pilgrims, 
dressed  in  the  tunic  and  toga  of  the  old  Romans. 

Present  Opinion. —  A  more  advanced  stage  of  criticism  has  drawn 
clearly  the  line  between  ancient  verse  and  modern,  and  shown 
wherein  lie  the  genius  and  strength  of  the  latter.  It  has  also  res- 
cued English  verse  from  the  Procrustean  bed  upon  which  it  was 
about  to  be  stretched,  and  has  restored  it  to  the  freedom  of  limb 
characteristic  of  its  northern  birth. 

Present  State  of  English  Verse. — English  verse  for  the  last  half 
century  has  been  better  in  every  respect  than  that  of  the  half  cen- 
tury of  which  Alexander  Pope  was  the  centre. 

VII.  ELISION. 

One  of  the  points  about  which  the  critics  have  been  divided 
is  the  elision  of  vowels. 

Take  the  following  examples : 

|  Blest  as  |  tlit  tromorltal  gods  |  is  he.  | 

|  A  pill|Sr  of  stale  |  deep  on  |  his  front  |  engraven.  | 

Explanation.  —  In  each  of  these  examples,  the  foot  printed  in  italics 
gives  us  three  syllables  where  by  analogy  only  two  are  expected. 
Such  examples  afford  not  the  slightest  difficulty,  when  we  have  once 
admitted  that  our  verse  is  accentual,  not  syllabic.  The  two  syllables 
which  here  accompany  the  accent  are  such  as  can  easily  be  sounded 


VERSIFICA  TION—  ELISION.  249 

while  the  organs  are  recovering  their  position  for  making  a  fresh 
accent,  and  occupy  only  the  time  ordinarily  occupied  by  one  syllable. 

Mistake  of  the  Older  Critics.  —  Some  of  the  older  critics  supposed 
that,  because  the  examples  are  from  iambic  verse,  where  the  feet 
consist  of  two  syllables,  these  particular  feet  must  be  reduced  to 
two  syllables,  both  in  pronunciation  and  in  writing.  Hence  in  such 
cases  these  words  are  written  "th1  immortal,"  and  "phTr,"  and  are 
pronounced  accordingly. 

Examples. — Among  the  thousands  of  words  which  thus  suffered  syncope  may 
be  named  enmy,  destny,  victry,  prisn,  weltring,  admant,  etc.  These  words,  in  such 
cases,  are  sometimes  written  as  just  given,  and  sometimes  with  an  apostrophe  over 
the  place  where  the  elision  has  taken  place,  as  en' my,  desfny,  vicVry,  pris'n,  etc. 

The  True  Solution.  —  According  to  the  theory  now  received,  there 
should  be  no  elision,  either  in  writing  or  in  pronunciation.  The 
whole  word  should  be  written  out,  and  the  two  syllables  which  thus 
occupy  the  place  of  one  should  both  be  pronounced,  but  pronounced 
lightly  so  as  to  occupy  only  the  time  of  one.  This  is  no  more  than 
is  done  in  all  anapaestic  and  dactylic  verse,  and  why  trochaic  and 
iambic  verse  should  not  be  varied  by  occasional  mixtures  of  anapaests 
and  dactyls  is  more  than  I  can  comprehend. 

Requirements  of  Modern  Verse.  —  The  rhythm  of  modern  verse, 
be  it  repeated,  is  governed  by  the  accent,  not  by  the  number  or  the 
length  of  the  syllables.  The  beauty  of  the  rhythm  depends,  indeed, 
in  a  great  measure,  upon  uniformity  in  the  movement.  If  a  number 
of  lines  consists  of  iambuses,  that  is,  of  feet  of  two  syllables  with 
the  accent  on  the  last,  the  ear  gets  accustomed  to  that  movement, 
and  expects  it  to  occur  regularly.  This  uniform  movement  gives 
ease  to  the  reader  and  pleasure  to  the  hearer.  At  the  same  time  it 
may  give  satiety.     Too  uniform  a  rhythm  may  produce  monotony. 

Variety  Allowed.  —  A  poet,  either  to  interrupt  this  monotony,  or 
to  attract  attention,  or  to  mark  some  transition  in  the  thought  or 
feeling,  may  legitimately  insert  into  one  of  these  lines  a  foot  with 
the  accent  on  the  first  syllable.  That  is,  he  may  make  a  mixed 
verse,  putting  an  occasional  trochee  into  iambic  verse,  or  iambuses 
into  trochaic,  etc.  In  like  manner,  if  a  number  of  lines  consists  of 
feet,  in  which  there  are  two  unaccented  syllables  to  every  accented 
one,  the  ear  expects  a  continuance  of  the  same.  For  the  purposes 
just 


250  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

dactyls,  or  dactyls  by  anapaests,  or  either  of  them  by  iambuses 
and  trochees. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Note.— The  extracts  which  follow  are  intended  to  illustrate  some  of  the  vari- 
eties of  metre  and  stanza.  The  student  is  expected  to  bring  the  passages  in,  copied 
on  paper,  with  the  versification  marked.  In  marking  the  versification,  the  fol- 
lowing process  is  recommended :     . 

1.  Each  syllable  that  is  sounded  should  be  marked,  as  being  accented  or  unac- 
cented. For  this  purpose,  we  use  for  convenience  the  marks  generally  employed 
for  long  and  short,  namely,  -  for  accented,  and  «  for  unaccented.    Thus: 

1.  Ring  out  the  old,  ring  In  the  new. 

2.  Why  lament  the  Christian  dying? 

3.  The  voice  6f  free  grace  cries,  escape  t&  the  mountain. 

4.  Hail  t6  the  chief  who  In  triumph  advances. 

2.  When  a  number  of  lines  in  any  piece  have  been  thus  marked,  the  student 
must  determine,  which  he  can  then  do  almost  by  inspection,  whether  the  move- 
ment is  Iambic.  Trochaic,  Anapaestic,  or  Dactylic  (see  pp.  229, 230;,  and  must  mark 
it  off  accordingly  into  feet.    Thus : 

1.  |  Ring  out  |  the  old,  |  ring  in  |  the  new.  | 

2.  |  Why  la  |  ment  the  |  Christian  |  dying?  | 

3.  |  The  voice  |  6f  free  grace  |  cries,  escape  1 16  the  mount  lain. 

4.  |  Hall  tS  the  |  chief  wh6  In  |  triumph  advances. 

3.  The  proper  designation  should  then  be  given  to  the  verse,  as  being  iambic, 
trochaic,  etc.,  and  as  being  monometer,  dimeter,  trimeter,  etc.  (see  pp.  229,  230). 
Thus,  in  the  lines  here  given,  No.  1  is  Iambic  tetrameter,  No.  2  is  Trochaic  tetram- 
eter, No.  3  is  Anapaestic  tetrameter  (the  additional  syllable  at  the  end  making 
up  for  the  syllable  wanting  at  the  beginning),  and  No.  4  is  Dactylic  trimeter,  with 
two  syllables  over. 

4.  In  case  of  the  passage  rhyming,  the  rhyme  should  be  described  as  being  in 
couplets,  quatrains,  sonnet-metre,  etc.,  and  the  formula  for  the  rhyme  and  the 
stanza  should  be  given,  as  on  pages  240-247.] 

1.  Nobody  knew  how  the  fisherman  brown, 
With  a  look 'of  despair  that  was 'half  a  frown, 
Faced  his  fate  on  that  furious  night, 

Faced  the  mad  billows  with  hunger  white, 
Just  within  hail  of  a  beacon  light, 
That  shone  on  a  woman  fair  and  trim 
Waiting  for  him. — Lucy  Larcom. 

2.  And  the  sinuous  paths  of  lawn  and  of  moss, 
Which  led  through  the  garden  along  and  across, 
Some  open  at  once  to  the  sun  and  the  breeze, 
Some  lost  among  bowers  of  blossoming  trees, 


VERSIFICATION— EXAMPLES.  251 

Were  all  paved  with  daisies  and  delicate  bells, 

As  fair  as  the  fabulous  asphodels, 

And  flow'rets  which,  drooping  as  day  drooped  too, 

Fell  into  pavilions  white,  purple,  and  blue, 

To  roof  the  glow-worm  from  the  evening  dew.  —  Shelley. 

3.  Hark  to  the  solemn  bell 

Mournfully  pealing! 
What  do  its  wailings  tell, 

On  the  ear  stealing? 
Seem  they  not  thus  to  say, 
Loved  ones  have  passed  away? 
Ashes  with  ashes  lay, 

List  to  its  pealing. 

t.  'Mid  scenes  of  confusion  and  creature  cpmplaints, 
How  sweet  to  the  soul  is  communion  with  saints; 
To  find  at  the  banquet  of  mercy  there 's  room, 
And  feel  in  the  presence  of  Jesus  at  home! 

5.  High  in  yonder  realms  of  light, 

Dwell  the  raptured  saints  above; 
Far  beyond  our  feeble  sight, 
Happy  in  Immanuel's  love. 

6.  From  Greenland's  icy  mountains, 

From  India's  coral  strand; 
Where  Afric's  sunny  fountains 

Roll  down  their  golden  sand; 
From  many  an  ancient  river, 

From  many  a  palmy  plain, 
They  call  us  to  deliver 

Their  land  from  error's  chain.  —  Ueber. 

7.  Lord,  dismiss  us  with  thy  blessing : 

Fill  our  hearts  with  joy  and  peace; 
Let  us  each,  thy  love  possessing, 
Triumph  in  redeeming  grace ; 

O  refresh  us, 
Travelling  through  this  wilderness. 


252  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

\  ^  \.        y  \       „  - 

8.  Saviour,  breathe  fin  evening^  blessing 

Ere  repose  our  spirits  seal : 
Sin  and  want  we  come  confessing, 

Thou  canst  save  and  thou  canst  heal. 
Though  destruction  walk  around  us, 

Though  the  arrow  near  us  fly, 
Angel-guards  from  thee  surround  us, 

We  are  safe  if  thou  art  nigh. 

9.  Sometimes  a  light  surprises 

The  Christian  while  he  sings; 
It  is  the  Lord  who  rises, 

With  healing  in  his  wings ; 
When  comforts  are  declining, 

He  grants  the  soul  again 
A  season  of  clear  shining, 

To  cheer  it  after  rain. 

10.  Encompassed  with  clouds  of  distress, 

Just  ready  all  hope  to  resign, 
I  pant  for  the  light  of  thy  face, 
And  fear  it  will  never  be  mine. 

11.  How  happy  are  they 
Who  the  Saviour  obey, 

And  have  laid  up  their  treasures  above! 

O  what  tongue  can  express 

The  sweet  comfort  and  peace 
Of  a  soul  in  its  earliest  love? 

12.  When  through  the  torn  sail  the  wild  tempest  is  streaming, 
When  o'er  the  dark  wave  the  red  lightning  is  gleaming, 
Nor  hope  lends  a  ray,  the  poor  seaman  to  cherish, 

We  fly  to  our  Master;  "Save,  Lord,  or  we  perish." 

13.  When  reposing  that  night  on  my  pallet  of  straw, 

By  the  wolf-scaring  fagot  that  guarded  the  slain; 
At  the  dead  of  the  night  a  sweet  vision  I  saw, 

And  thrice  ere  the  morning  I  dreamt  it  again.— Campbell. 


VERSIFICATION— EXAMPLES  253 

14.  This  world  is  all  a  fleeting  show, 
For  man's  illusion  given; 
The  smiles  of  joy,  the  tears  of  woe, 
Deceitful  shine,  deceitful  flow  — 

There 's  nothing  true  but  heaven !  —  Moore. 

15.  I  saw  from  the  beach  when  the  morning  was  shining, 
A  bark  o'er  the  waters  move  gloriously  on: 
I  came,  when  the  sun  o'er  that  beach  was  declining — 
The  bark  was  still  there,  but  the  waters  were  gone. — Moore. 

16.    There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods, 
There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore, 
There  is  society,  where  none  intrudes, 
By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar ; 
I  love  not  man  the  less,  but  nature  more, 

From  these  our  interviews,  in  which  I  steal 
From  all  I  may  be,  or  have  been  before, 
To  mingle  with  the  universe,  and  feel 
"What  I  can  ne'er  express,  yet  cannot  all  conceal. —  Byron. 

17.  Comrades,  leave  me  here  a  little,  while  as  yet  'tis  early  morn; 
Leave  me  here,  and  when  you  want  me,  sound  upon  the  bugle- 
horn. 

'Tis  the  place,  and  all  around  it,  as  of  old,  the  curlews  call, 
Dreary  gleams  about  the  moorland  flying  over  Locksley  Hall. 

Tennyson. 

18.  You  must  wake  and  call  me  early,  call  me  early,  mother  dear; 
To-morrow  '11  be  the  happiest  time  of  all  the  glad  new-year ; 
Of  all  the  glad  new-year,  mother,  the  maddest,  merriest  day ; 
For  I  'm  to  be  Queen-o'-the-May,  mother,  I  'm  to  be  Queen-o'- 

the-May. — Tennyson. 

19.    Airy,  fairy  Lilian, 

Flitting,  fairy  Lilian, 
When  I  ask  her  if  she  loves  me, 
Clasps  her  tiny  hands  above  me, 

Laughing  all  she  can; 
She'll  not  tell  me  if  she  loves  me, 

Cruel  little  Lilian. — Tennyson. 


254  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

20.  Straight  mine  eye  hath  caught  new  pleasures, 
Whilst  the  landscape  round  it  measures; 
Russet  lawns,  and  fallow  gray, 
"Where  the  nibbling  flocks  do  stray; 
Mountains  on  whose  barren  breast 
The  laboring  clouds  do  often  rest; 
Meadows  trim  with  daisies  pied, 
Shallow  brooks,  and  river  wide: 
Towers  and  battlements  it  sees 
Bosom'd  high  in  tufted  trees, 

Where  perhaps  some  beauty  lies. — Milton. 

21.  Spake  full  well  in  language  quaint  and  olden, 

One  who  dwelleth  by  the  castled  Rhine, 
When  he  called  the  flowers,  so  blue  and  golden, 

Stars,  that  in  earth's  firmament  do  shine. — Longfellow. 

22.  O,  the  Rose  of  Granada  was  blooming  full-blown, 

And  she  laughed  at  the  suitors  who  thought  her  their  own, 
Till  there  came  from  Morocco  the  Moor,  Ala  Jaerr, 
And  he  tossed  from  his  spear-head  the  horse-tails  in  air, 
Saying,  "List  to  me,  lady; 
For  hither  I  've  flown, 
O  Rose  of  Granada, 

To  make  thee  my  own." — BoTcer. 

23.  There  was  a  gay  maiden  lived  down  by  the  mill  — 

Ferry  me  over  the  ferry  — 
Her  hair  was  as  bright  as  the  waves  of  a  rill, 
When  the  sun  on  the  brink  of  his  setting  stands  still, 

Her  lips  were  as  full  as  a  cherry. — Boker. 

24.  Thou  lingering  star,  with  lessening  ray, 
That  lov'st  to  greet  the  early  morn, 
Again  thou  usher'st  in  the  day 

My  Mary  from  my  soul  was  torn. —  Burns. 

25.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still, 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove, 
When  nought  but  the  torrent  is  heard  on  the  hill, 
And  nought  but  the  nightingale's  song  in  the  grove: 


VERSIFICATION— EXAMPLES.  255 

'T  was  thus,  by  the  cave  of  the  mountain  afar, 

While  his  harp  rung  symphonious,  a  hermit  began: 

No  more  with  himself  or  with  nature  at  war, 
He  thought  as  a  sage,  though  he  felt  as  a  man. — Beattie. 

26.  Vital  spark  of  heavenly  flame, 
Quit,  oh,  quit  this  mortal  frame; 
Trembling,  hoping,  lingering,  flying  — 
Oh  the  pain,  the  bliss  of  dying! 
Cease,  fond  Nature,  cease  thy  strife, 
And  let  me  languish  into  life !  —  Pope. 

27.  Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled, 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild, 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose. —  Goldsmith. 

28.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold, 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea, 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  dark  Galilee. —  Byron. 

29.  At  midnight,  in  his  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming  of  the  hour 
When  Greece,  her  knee  in  suppliance  bent, 

Should  tremble  at  his  power; 
In  dreams,  through  camp  and  court,  he  bore 
The  trophies  of  a  conqueror; 

In  dreams,  his  song  of  triumph  heard; 
Then  wore  his  monarch's  signet  ring; 
Then  press'd  that  monarch's  throne, —  a  king: 
As  wild  his  thoughts,  and  gay  of  wing, 

As  Eden's  garden  bird. —  Halleck. 

30.  Long  years  had  elapsed  since  I  gazed  on  the  scene, 
Which  my  fancy  still  robed  in  its  freshness  of  green  — 
The  spot  where  a  schoolboy,  all  thoughtless,  I  stray'd, 

By  the  side  of  the  stream,  in  the  gloom  of  the  shade. 

31.  Men  of  thought!   be  up  and  stirring  night  and  day; 

Sow  the  seed  —  withdraw  the  curtain  —  clear  the  way. 
Men  of  action,  aid  and  cheer  them,  as  ye  may ! 


256  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

There's  a  fount  about  to  stream, 

There's  a  light  about  to  beam, 

There's  a  warmth  about  to  glow, 

There's  a  flower  about  to  blow; 
There 's  a  midnight  blackness  changing  into  gray. 
Men  of  thought  and  men  of  action,  clear  the  way! 

32.  I  come  from  the  ether,  cleft  hotly  aside, 

Through  the  air  of  the  soft  summer  morning; 
I  come  with  a  song  as  I  dash  on  my  way, — 
Both  a  dirge  and  a  message  of  warning: 
No  sweet,  idle  dreams,  nor  romance  of  love, 
Nor  poet's  soft  balm-breathing  story 
Of  armor-clad  knight,  at  tournament  gay, 
Where  a  scarf  was  the  guerdon  of  glory ;  — 

"Whistling  so  airily 

Past  the  ear  warily, 

Watching  me  narrowly, 

Crashing  I  come! 

[Song  of  the  Cannon-Ball.] 

33.  There 's  a  game  much  in  fashion, —  I  think  it 's  called  euchre, 
(Though  I  never  have  played  it  for  pleasure  or  lucre,)  — 
In  which,  when  the  cards  are  in  certain  conditions, 
The  players  appear  to  have  changed  their  positions, 
And  one  of  them  cries,  in  a  confident  tone,  — 
M 1  think  I  may  venture  to  go  it  alone !  "  — Saxe. 

34.  One  by  one  the"  sands  are  flowing, 
One  by  one  the  moments  fall ; 
Some  are  coming,  some  are  going : 
Do  not -strive  to  grasp  them  all.  —  A.  Procter. 

35.  I  will  go  to  my  tent,  and  lie  down  in  despair; 
I  will  paint  me  with  black,  and  will  sever  my  hair; 
I  will  sit  on  the  shore  where  the  hurricane  blows, 
And  reveal  to  the  god  of  the  tempest  my  woes; 
I  will  weep  for  a  season  on  bitterness  fed, 
For  my  kindred  are  gone  to  the  hills  of  the  dead; 
But  they  died  not  by  hunger,  or  lingering  decay,  — 
The  steel  of  the  white  man  hath  swept  them  away: 


VERSIFTCA  TION— EXAMPLES.  257 

My  wife,  and  my  children,  —  oh,  spare  me  the  tale ! 
For  who  is  there  left  that  is  kin  to  Geehale! 

[Indian 's  Lament.] 

86.  Oh!  a  wonderful  stream  is  the  river  Time, 
As  it  runs  through  the  realm  of  tears, 
"With  a  faultless  rhythm,  and  a  musical  rhyme, 
And  a  broader  sweep  and  a  surge  sublime, 

As  it  blends  in  the  ocean  of  years !  —  B.  F.  Taylor. 

87.  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And  departing,  leave  behind  us 

Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time.  —  Longfellow. 

38.  Stand  here  by  my  side,  and  turn,  I  pray, 
On  the  lake  below,  thy  gentle  eyes; 
The  clouds  hang  over  it,  heavy  and  gray, 

And  dark  and  silent  the  water  lies; 
And  out  of  that  frozen  mist  the  snow 
In  wavering  flakes  begins  to  flow; 

Flake  after  flake, 
They  sink  in  the  dark  and  silent  lake.  —  Bi*yant. 

39.  The  mighty  master  smiled  to  see 
That  love  was  in  the  next  degree; 
'T  was  but  a  kindred  strain  to  move ; 
For  pity  melts  the  mind  to  love. 
Softly  sweet,  in  Lydian  measures, 
Soon  he  soothed  his  soul  to  pleasures: 
"War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble; 
Honor  but  an  empty  bubble"; 
Never  ending,  still  beginning, 

Fighting  still,  and  still  destroying: 
If  the  world  be  worth  thy  winning, 
Think,  on,  think  it  worth  enjoying! 
Lovely  Thais  sits  beside  thee;x 
Take  the  good  the"  gods  provide  thee. 
The  many  rend  the  skies  with  loud  applause; 
So  love  was  crown'd ;  but  music  won  the  cause.  —  DryoZen. 
22*  R 


258  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

40.  Forth  into  the  mighty  forest 
Rushed  the  madden'd  Hiawatha; 
In  his  heart  was  deadly  sorrow, 
In  his  face  a  stony  firmness, 

On  his  brow  the  sweat  of  anguish 

Started,  but  it  froze  and  fell  not.  —  Longfellow. 

41.  With  fingers  weary  and  worn, 

With  eyelids  heavy  and  red, 
A  woman  sat,  in  unwomanly  rags, 

Plying  her  needle  and  thread, — 
Stitch!  stitch!  stitch! 
In  poverty,  hunger,  and  dirt, 

And  still,  with  a  voice  of  dolorous  pitch, 
She  sang  the  "  Song  of  the  Shirt."  —  Hood. 

42.  A  soldier  of  the  Legion  lay  dying  in  Algiers, 

There   was  lack  of  woman's  nursing,  there   was  dearth  of 

woman's  tears; 
But  a  comrade  stood  beside  him,  while  his  life-blood  ebbed 

away, 
And  bent,  with  pitying  glances,  to  hear  what  he  might  say. 
The  dying  soldier  faltered,  as  he  took  that  comrade's  hand, 
And  he  said :  I  never  more  shall  see  my  own,  my  native  land: 
Take  a  message,  and  a  token,  to  some  distant  friends  of  mine, 
For  I  was  born  at  Bingen,  —  at  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

Mrs.  Norton. 

43.  There  is  no  flock,  however  watched  and  tended, 
But  one  dead  lamb  is  there! 
There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 
But  has  one  vacant  chair! — Longfellow. 

44.  There's  a  bower  of  roses  by  Bendemeer's  stream, 

And  the  nightingale  sings  round  it  all  the  day  long; 
In  the  time  of  my  childhood,  'twas  like  a  sweet  dream, 
To  sit  in  the  roses  and  hear  the  bird's  song. — Moore. 

45.    Whom  do  we  dub  as  gentleman?    The  knave,  the  fool,  the 
brute, 
If  they  but  own  full  tithe  of  gold,  and  wear  a  courtly  suit  1 


VERSIFICATION— EXAMPLES.  259 

The  parchment  scroll  of  titled  line, —  the  ribbon  at  the  knee, 
Can  still  suffice  to  ratify  and  grant  such  high  degree ! 

46.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day; 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. —  Gray. 

47.  Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered  weak  and  weary, 
Over  many  a  quaint  and  curious  volume  of  forgotten  lore  — 
While  I  nodded,  nearly  napping,  suddenly  there  came  a  tapping, 
As  of  some  one  gently  rapping,  rapping  at  my  chamber-door. 
U1T  is  some  visitor,"  I  muttered,  "  tapping  at  my  chamber-door — 
Only  this,  and  nothing  more."" — Poe. 

48.  Singing  through  the  forests, 

Rattling  over  ridges, 
Shooting  under  arches, 

Rumbling  over^  bridges ; 
"Whizzing  through  the  mountain, 

Buzzing  o'er*  the  vale, 
Bless  me!    this  is  pleasant, 

Riding  on  the  rail !  —  Saxe, 

49.  I  sometimes  have  thought  in  my  loneliest  of  hours, 
That  lie  on  my  heart  like  the  dew  on  the  flowers, 
Of  a  ramble  I  took,  one  bright  afternoon, 
When  my  heart  was  as  light  as  a  blossom  in  June. 
The  green  earth  was  moist  with  the  late-fallen  showers, 
The  breeze  fluttered  down  and  blew  open  the  flowers; 
While  a  single  white  cloud  floated  off  in  the  west, 
On  the  white  wing  of  peace,  to  its  haven  of  rest. 

50.  Hear  the  sledges  with  the  bells  — 
Silver  bells  — 
What  a  world  of  merriment  their  melody  foretells! 
How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle, 

In  the  icy  air  of  night! 
While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 
All  the  heavens,  seem  to  twinkle 
With  a  crystalline  delight; 


260  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

Keeping  time,  time,  time, 

In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme, 
To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 

From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, 
Bells,  bells,  bells  — 
From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells. — Poe. 

51.    Speak  gently  of  the  erring, —  oh!   do  not  thou  forget, 
However  darkly  stained  by  sin,  he  is  thy  brother  yet : 
I    Heir  of  the  selfsame  heritage,  child  of  the  selfsame  God, 
He  hath  but  stumbled  in  the  path  thou  hast  in  weakness  trod. 

F.  G.  Lee. 
52.  Oh !    a  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green 
That  creepeth  o'er  ruins  old! 
Of  right  choice  food  are  his  meals,  I  ween, 

In  his  cell  so  low  and  cold. 
The  walls  must  be  crumbled,  the  stones  decayed; 

To  pleasure  his  dainty  whim; 
And  the  mouldering  dust  that  years  have  made 

Is  a  merry  meal  for  him. 
Creeping  where  no  life  is  seen, 
A  rare  old  plant  is  the  ivy  green. — Dickens. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

POETRY. 

Defective  Definitions. —  Most  of  the  definitions  of  Poetry  which 
have  been  proposed  are  open  to  the  objection  that  they  apply 
equally  well  to  certain  kinds  of  prose.  They  describe  what  is  poet- 
ical, rather  than  what  is  poetry.  Passages  without  number  in  the 
prose  writings  of  Milton,  in  Jeremy  Taylor,  in  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
in  Euskin,  in  Hawthorne,  and  in  many  other  imaginative  writers, 
are  thoroughly  poetical,  but  they  are  not  poetry. 

Indispensable  Conditions. —  Nothing  is  really  poetry  unless  it  is  in 
verse.*  This  is  an  indispensable  condition.  Not,  however,  the  only 
condition. 

"Thirty  days  hath  September, 
April,  June,  and  November," 

is  verse,  but  it  is  not  poetry.  In  order  that  anything  may  be  truly 
accounted  poetry,  it  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  in  the  form  of  verse, 
and,  secondly,  it  must  be  poetical  in  its  essence.  What  constitutes 
verse  has  been  shown  in  the  previous  chapter.  It  remains  now  to 
show  what  makes  a  thing  poetical. 

Poetical  in  Essence. — A  piece  of  composition  is  essentially 
poetical  when  it  has  these  three  marks :  1.  It  is  the  product 

*  "  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  advanced  by  some  French  critics,  to  prove 
that  a  work  not  in  metre  may  be  a  poem,  universal  opinion  has  always  given  a  con- 
trary decision." —  Whately. 

One  reason  why  writers  on  this  subject  have  generally  failed  in  their  definition  of 
it,  is  that  they  have  begun  wrong.  Verse  being  an  essential  condition  of  poetry,  we 
should  begin  by  defining  verse,  and  from  that  proceed  to  a  definition  of  poetry. 
When  that  which  is  in  itself  poetical  is  put  in  the  form  of  verse,  we  have  Poetry. 

261 


262  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

of  an  excited  imagination.     2.  It  is  the  product  of  a  creative 
imagination.     3.  Its  primary  object  is  to  please. 
Let  us  consider  each  of  these  points. 

1.  An  Excited  Imagination. —  Poetry  is  the  product  of  an  excited 
imagination.  Shakespeare  refers  to  this  quality,  when  he  speaks  of 
uthe  poet's  eye  in  a,  fine  frenzy  rolling."  The  poetical  is  distin- 
guished, in  this  respect,  from  the  prosaic,  by  being  raised  above 
what  is  merely  narrative,  descriptive,  argumentative,  or  scientific. 
The  mind,  in  producing  anything  poetical,  is  always  raised  above 
its  ordinary  level  of  thought  and  feeling. 

2.  A  Creative  Imagination. —  Poetry  is  equally  the  product  of  a 
creative  imagination.  The  word  poet  (Gr.,  Uoitjttjq)  means  a  maker. 
The  poet  is  one  who  creates  new  forms  of  thought.  This  quality  is 
also  referred  to  by  Shakespeare,  when  he  speaks  of  the  poet's  body- 
ing forth  the  forms  of  things  "  unknown,"  and  giving  name  and 
place  to  uairy  nothing." 

The  Process  seems  to  be  this :  The  imagination  first  becomes  excited,  and 
then,  when  thus  excited,  it  becomes  creative.  Both  parts  of  this  process  are  ex- 
pressed in  the  passage  already  referred  to : 

The  poet's  eye,  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling, 

Doth  glance  from  heaven  to  earth,  from  earth  to  heaven ; 

And,  as  imagination  bodies  forth 

The  forms  of  things  unknown,  the  poet's  pen 

Turns  them  to  shape,  and  gives  to  airy  nothing 

A  local  habitation  and  a  name. 

3.  Primary  Object  to  Please. —  The  primary  object  of  poetry  is  to 
please.  This  quality  distinguishes  it  from  Oratory,  and  some  of  the 
other  higher  kinds  of  prose,  which  often  have  the  first  and  second 
qualities  here  named,  but  not  the  third.  Their  primary  object  is 
not  to  please,  but  to  move  and  persuade. 

When  Daniel  Webster*  uttered  the  concluding  passage  of  his  memorable  reply 

*"  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun  in  heaven, 
may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glo- 
rious Union  ;  on  States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a  land  rent  with  civil 
feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood !  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering 
glance  rather  behold  the  glorious  ensign  of  the  Republic,  now  known  and  honored 
throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  In 
their  original  lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star  obsouml,  bearing 
for  its  motto,  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as—'  What  is  all  this  worth  ?'  nor  those 
other  words  of  delusion  and  folly  — '  Liberty  first,  and  Union  afterward ; '  but  every- 
where, spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as 
they  float  over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  and  in  everv  wind  under  the  whole  heavens, 
that  other  sentiment,  dear  to  every  true  American  heart,— *  Liberty  and  Union, 

NOW  AND  FOREVER,  ONE  AND  INSEPARABLE!'" 


POETRY— EPIC.  263 

to  Hayne,  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  he  was  under  the  influence  of  a 
powerfully  excited  imagination,  his  eye,  no  doubt,  "in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling;" 
and  the  ideas  and  forms  of  thought  bodied  forth  by  him  were  as  truly  the  work 
of  a  creative  imagination  as  anything  ever  penned  by  Shakespeare  or  Milton. 
Such  a  passage  also  undoubtedly  gives  pleasure.  But  that  is  not  its  primary 
object.  Had  there  been  a  suspicion,  in  the  case  just  cited,  that  the  object  of  that 
sublime  burst  of  eloquence  was  merely  to  excite  applause,  the  speaker  would 
have  been  hooted  out  of  the  Senate  in  contempt. 

From  these  elements  it  is  not  difficult  to  proceed  to  a  definition 
of  poetry. 

Definition  of  Poetry.  —  Poetry  may  be  defined  to  be  the 
product  of  an  excited  and  a  creative  imagination,  with  a 
primary  object  to  please,  and  expressed  in  the  form  of  verse. 

Belation  to  other  Arts.  —  Poetry  is  one  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  is 
thereby  allied  to  Music,  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture,  in  all 
of  which  the  primary  object  is  to  please. 

Kinds  of  Poetry.  —  The  different  kinds  of  poetry  may  be  con- 
veniently included  under  the  heads  of  Epic,  Dramatic,  Lyric,  Elegiac, 
Didactic,  Satiric,  and  Pastoral. 

I.  EPIC  POETRY. 

An  Epic  Poem  is  a  poetical  recital  of  some  great  and 
heroic  enterprise. 

Its  High  Character.  —  Epic  poetry  is  universally  admitted  to  be  the 
highest  and  most  difficult  kind  of  poetical  composition.  The  num- 
ber of  successful  Epics  is  accordingly  very  limited.  Most  civilized 
nations  have  one,  few  have  more  than  one.  The  three  Epics  of 
greatest  celebrity  are  Homer's  Iliad  in  Greek,  Virgil's  JEneid  in 
Latin,  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  in  English. 

The  chief  qualities  of  an  Epic  poem  are  the  following : 

1.  The  first  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  its  subject 
should  be  great  and  heroic. 

The  Iliad.  —  This  poem  narrates  the  siege  and  downfall  of  Troy, 
the  most  memorable  event  in  the  early  history  of  the  Trojans  and 
the  Greeks,  the  two  most  renowned  nations  of  antiquity. 


264  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

The  JEneid. —  This  has  for  its  subject  the  perils  and  labors  of 
iEneas,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Roman  race,  in  laying  the  foun- 
dations of  that  great  nation  and  city,  which  became  and  long  con- 
tinued to  be  the  mistress  of  the  world. 

Paradise  Lost.  —  Milton's  theme  is  grander  still,  involving  the 
interests,  not  of  one  nation  merely,  but  of  the  whole  human  race, 
and  not  of  men  merely,  but  of  the  great  angelic  host,  and  even  cele- 
brating in  lofty  strains  the  very  "throne  and  equipage  of  God's 
almightiness." 

So  it  will  be  found,  in  regard  to  every  poem  that  has  been  gen- 
erally received  as  an  Epic,  that  its  subject  is  one  that  can  be  truly 
regarded  as  great.  It  must  be  one  that  involves  momentous  inter- 
ests, and  that  calls  for  the  display  of  heroic  achievements. 

2.  The  second  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  it  should 
form  a  completed  and  connected  whole. 

Unity  of  the  Epic.  —  This  is  what  is  generally  known  as  the  Unity 
of  the  Epic.  By  this  is  meant  that  there  is  some  one  important 
event  or  achievement  which  is  set  before  the  reader  as  the  main 
end  of  the  story.  Not  only  all  the  particular  incidents  must  have 
relation  to  this  event,  and  be  kept  in  subordination  to  it,  but  this 
event  must  be  given  in  its  completeness,  so  that  when  we  are  through 
with  the  poem  we  feel  that  we  have  the  whole  story. 

How  Produced. — In  producing  this  completeness,  poets  usually 
employ  the  artifice  of  beginning  in  the  middle  or  near  the  close  of 
the  story,  and  weaving  in  the  antecedent  parts  by  means  of  conver- 
sation among  the  actors.  Thus  the  JEneid  begins  with  the  ship- 
wreck of  the  hero  off  the  coast  of  Carthage,  after  he  has  gone 
through  nearly  three-fourths  of  his  labors  and  exploits.  Being  in- 
vited to  a  great  feast  by  Queen  Dido,  he,  at  her  request,  entertains 
the  company  with  a  narrative  of  the  antecedent  parts  of  his  story. 

Method  of  Poetical  Narrative.  —  So  in  the  case  of  every  great  epic. 
The  poet  does  not  proceed  in  the  manner  of  a  history,  but  dashes 
at  once  into  the  very  midst  of  the  events,  about  the  time  that  they 
are  getting  to  be  most  highly  interesting,  the  early  causes  and  ante- 
cedents necessary  to  the  completeness  of  the  whole  being  brought 
in,  from  time  to  time,  in  an  incidental  way.     This  method  of  pro- 


POETRY— EPIC.  265 

ceeding  makes  the  whole  more  picturesque,  and  produces  a  more 
powerful  effect  upon  the  imagination. 

3.  A  third  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  it  should  have 
its  hero. 

Explanation. — There  should  be  some  one  principal  actor,  in  whose 
exploits  and  destiny  we  are  more  interested  than  in  those  of  any 
other.  This  feature  is  perhaps  implied  in  the  preceding.  Still  it 
is  well  to  give  it  a  distinct  mention.  The  hero  of  the  Iliad  is 
Achilles,  that  of  the  iEneid  is  iEneas,  that  of  Paradise  Lost  is  Man, 
or  Adam,  as  the  representative  of  his  race.  Such  at  least  was  Mil- 
ton's intention,  though  it  must  be  confessed  that,  on  closing  the 
book,  the  figure  which  stands  out  most  boldly  before  the  imagina- 
tion is  that  of  Satan,  the  great  arch-enemy  of  God  and  man. 

4.  A  fourth  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  it  should 
involve  many  actors  and  a  complicated  plot. 

Explanation. —  The  story  of  a  single  actor,  like  that  of  Robinson 
Crusoe  on  his  solitary  island,  could  never  be  a  proper  subject  for  an 
epic,  no  matter  how  great  and  heroic  the  man  might  be  in  himself. 
Nor  could  an  epic  be  made  out  of  a  single,  isolated  transaction,  no 
matter  how  momentous  or  sublime  the  transaction  might  be.  A 
poem  on  such  a  subject  would  bear  the  same  relation  to  an  epic,  as 
would  a  duel  to  a  fight  between  two  great  armies. 

5.  A  fifth  condition  of  the  Epic  is  that  its  tone  should  be 
prevailingly  serious  and  earnest. 

Thersites  and  Falstaff. —  Ilomer,  it  is  true,  once  raises  a  laugh  over 
the  braggart,  Thersites.  But  this  is  quite  exceptional.  A  story  con- 
taining a  leading  character  given  to  fun,  like  Falstaff,  for  instance, 
or  a  story  made  up  chiefly  of  scenes  and  characters  of  a  gay  and 
festive  kind,  would  be  manifestly  unsuited  to  the  purposes  of  the 
epic. 

6.  A  sixth  condition  of  the  Epic  is  that  the  story  itself, 
merely  as  a  story,  should  be  interesting. 

Different  from  other  Poetry. — The  case  is  different  with  many  other 
kinds  of  poetry.     In  Lyric,  Didactic,  Pastoral,  and  some  other  kinds 
23 


266  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

of  poetry,  there  is  either  no  story  at  all,  or  if  any,  not  enough  to 
affect  to  any  considerable  extent  the  merits  of  the  piece.  But  an 
Epic  is  essentially  a  story,  such  in  its  materials  and  its  artistic 
arrangement  that  it  would  be  of  absorbing  interest  even  if  told  in 
prose.  This  story,  thus  interesting  in  itself,  receives  the  superadded 
splendors  and  glories  of  the  very  highest  type  of  poetical  beauty. 

Metrical  Romance. —  The  Metrical  Romance  is  inferior  in  dig- 
nity and  grandeur  to  the  Epic,  but  belongs  essentially  to  the  same 
species  of  composition.  It  is  a  narrative  of  adventure,  and  has 
indeed  nearly  every  quality  described  as  belonging  to  the  Epic,  but 
has  them  in  a  less  marked  degree. 

Examples.—  The  Faerie  Queene,  by  Spenser,  if  indeed  it  be  not  reckoned 
as  an  Epic,  yet  certainly  comes  very  nearly  to  that  level,  and  must  be  regarded 
as  the  highest  specimen  extant  of  the  Metrical  Romance.  The  number  of  poems 
of  this  class  is  very  great.  In  our  older  literature  we  may  instance  the  Romaunt 
of  the  Rose,  by  Chaucer,  and  in  later  times  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  Marmion, 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  the  Idyls  of  the  King,  by  Tennyson. 

Metrical  Chronicle. — The  Chronicle  belongs  to  the  same  gen- 
eral class  of  compositions,  being  narrative  in  form,  and  relying  very 
much  upon  the  story  for  its  effect,  but  it  is  inferior  in  style  and  dig- 
nity to  the  Romance. 

H.  DRAMATIC  POETRY. 

Dramatic  Poetry  ranks  with  the  Epic  in  dignity  and  excel- 
lence, and  has  nearly  all  its  essential  characteristics. 

Likeness  to  the  Epic. —  Like  the  Epic,  the  Drama,  at  least  in  its 
higher  forms,  must  have  some  great  and  heroic  transaction  for  its 
subject;  it  must,  even  more  than  the  Epic,  maintain  unity  in  the 
action ;  it  must  have  one  leading  character  or  hero ;  it  must  have 
some  complication  of  plot. 

TJnlikeness. —  In  its  form,  the  Drama  is  essentially  unlike  the  Epic 
and  all  other  narrative  poems.  What  they  narrate  as  having  been 
done,  the  Drama  represents  as  actually  doing  before  our  eyes.*  In 
the  Drama,  the  action  is  carried  on  solely  by  means  of  dialogue 
between  the  actors.  In  Epic  poetry,  indeed,  the  narrative  often 
becomes  dramatic,  and  takes  the  form  of  dialogue.  But  in  the 
drama,  the  form  is  exclusively  that  of  dialogue. 

♦The  word  is  from  the  Greek  Spdfia  (drama),  and  signifies  action,  or  doing. 


POETRY— DRAMATIC.  267 

The  Unities. —  Besides  unity  of  subject,  which  it  has  in  common 
with  the  Epic,  the  Drama  requires  also  two  other  unities,  namely, 
those  of  time  and  place. 

Unity  of  Time. —  By  unity  of  time  was  meant  originally  that  the 
transactions  should  be  capable  of  occurring  within  the  space  of  time 
ordinarily  occupied  in  the  performance  of  a  play,  say  about  three 
hours.  The  rule,  however,  was  early  enlarged  so  as  to  allow  one 
whole  day  for  the  transactions.  Since  the  division  of  plays  into 
five  Acts,  which  prevails  in  all  modern  dramas,  this  rule  about  unity 
of  time  is  very  much  disregarded. 

Unity  of  Place. —  A  like  change  has  taken  place  in  regard  to  unity 
of  place.  When,  as  in  the  earliest  form  of  the  drama,  the  action 
went  straight  forward  without  interruption,  the  curtain  never  fall- 
ing and  the  stage  never  being  left  vacant  t)f  actors,  until  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  whole,  it  followed  of  necessity  that  the  transactions 
should  all  occur  in  one  place  and  in  one  short  space  of  time.  But 
now,  when  at  brief  intervals  the  scene  closes  entirely,  the  time  and 
place  may  without  difficulty  be  changed  at  each  fall  of  the  curtain, 
provided  the  changes  be  not  such  as  to  interfere  with  oneness  of 
general  effect. 

Acts  and  Scenes.  —  Modern  dramas  are  by  general  custom  divided 
into  five  Acts,  and  each  Act  is  usually  composed  of  several  Scenes. 

Kinds  of  Drama. —  The  two  principal  kinds  of  drama  are  Tragedy 
and  Comedy. 

Tragedy.  —  Tragedy  is  more  akin  to  the  Epic,  being  serious  and 
dignified,  and  having  for  its  subject  some  great  transaction.  It  un- 
dertakes to  delineate  the  strongest  passions,  and  to  move  the  soul 
of  the  spectator  in  the  highest  degree.  It  is  especially  conversant 
with  scenes  of  suffering  and  violence,  and  ends  almost  uniformly 
with  the  death  of  the  person  or  persons  in  whom  the  spectator  is 
most  interested. 

Comedy.  —  Comedy,  on  the  other  hand,  aims  to  amuse,  and  seeks 
chiefly  the  topics  of  common  life.  It  deals  largely  in  ridicule  and 
satire,  and  often  ends  in  the  marriage  or  other  good  fortune  of  the 
principal  personages. 

Greek  Dramatists.— Among  the  Greeks,  ^Eschylus,  Euripides,  and 


268  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Sophocles  were  particularly  distinguished  as  writers  of  Tragedy,  and 
Aristophanes  excelled  all  others  as  a  writer  of  Comedy. 

Shakespeare.  —  The  greatest  dramatist  in  English  literature,  the 
greatest  perhaps  in  all  literature,  is  Shakespeare.  His  plays  are  very 
numerous,  and  are  divided  into  Tragedies,  Comedies,  and  what  he 
calls  Histories.  These  last  are  dramatic  representations  of  portions 
of  English  history,  and  are  mainly  tragic  in  their  character,  though 
having  a  large  comic  element. 

Farce.  —  A  Farce  is  a  short  dramatic  composition,  having  for  its 
object  simply  to  excite  mirth.  It  seldom  extends  to  more  than  two 
Acts,  and  generally  consists  of  but  a  single  Act. 

Opera.  —  An  Opera  is  a  drama  set  to  music,  the  actors  singing  the 
parts  instead  of  speaking  them. 

Melodrama.  —  A  Melodrama  is  a  drama  in  which  some  parts  are 
spoken  and  some  are  sung. 

Both  in  Opera  and  Melodrama,  the  author  seeks  to  produce  effects 
by  startling  situations  and  gorgeous  scenery  and  dresses,  such  as 
would  be  out  of  place  in  Tragedy  or  Comedy. 

HI.  LYRIC  POETRY. 

Lyric  Poetry,  as  its  name  denotes,  meant  originally  poetry 
intended  to  be  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre. 

Its  Charaoter.  —  Lyric  poetry  is,  in  every  nation,  the  oldest  form 
of  poetry  known  to  its  literature,  and  contains  some  of  its  highest 
specimens  of  the  poetic  art. 

Different  from  Epic.  —  Lyric  poetry  is  used  mainly  for  the  expres- 
sion of  sentiment  and  emotion,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  the 
Epic,  which  narrates  facts.  It  expresses  the  sentiments  and  emotions 
of  the  author,  in  his  own  proper  person,  and  is  thus  distinguished 
from  the  Drama,  in  which  the  author  disappears  entirely,  the 
thoughts  expressed  being  those  of  the  persons  of  the  Drama. 

Odes. —  The  most  common  form  of  Lyric  poetry  is  the  Ode 
or  Song.  Odes  or  Songs  are  of  six  kinds :  Sacred,  Heroic, 
Moral,  Amatory,  Comic,  and  Bacchanalian. 


POETRY— LYRIC.  269 

1.  Sacred  Odes. —  These  are  usually  called  Psalms  or  Hymns.  They 
are  composed  on  religious  subjects,  and  are  for  the  most  part  ad- 
dressed directly  to  God. 

Hymnic  Poetry.  —  This  is  found  in  the  literature  of  every  nation. 
The  Hebrew  Psalms  are  among  the  highest  specimens  of  lyric  poetry. 
Jn  modern  times  this  species  of  poetry  has  been  cultivated  much  more 
than  in  the  early  ages,  in  consequence  of  the  extent  to  which  Psalms 
and  Hymns  are  used  in  the  religious  worship  of  all  Christian  churches. 
The  number  of  Psalms  and  Hymns  in  current  and  reputable  use  in 
English  is  counted  by  thousands,  and  no  inconsiderable  portion  of 
these  have  decided  poetical  merit. 

Hymn  Writers. —  The  principal  writers  of  Hymns  in  English  are 
Watts,  Doddridge,  Ken,  Charles  Wesley,  Dwight,  Newton,  Mont- 
gomery, Heber,  Mrs.  Steele,  Mrs.  Barbauld,  and  Jane  Taylor. 
Among  more  recent  hymnists  may  be  named  Faber,  Ray  Palmer, 
Bonar,  and  Charlotte  Elliott. 

Other  Kinds  of  Hymns. —  The  word  Hymn  is  sometimes  applied  to 
compositions  of  a  more  extended  character,  and  not  intended  for 
religious  worship.  Thus  Spenser  has  written  four  hymns,  on  Love, 
Beauty,  Heavenly  Love,  and  Heavenly  Beauty,  averaging  nearly 
three  hundred  lines  each.  The  religious  odes  among  the  ancients 
also  were  usually  much  longer  than  those  which  we  now  use  in 
Christian  worship. 

2.  Heroic  Odes. —  These  are  lyric  poems  celebrating  the  praises  of 
heroes,  and  are  mostly  occupied  with  martial  exploits. 

The  odes  of  Pindar,  in  Greek,  are  considered  the  highest  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  of  composition.  "Alexander's  Feast,"  by  Dry- 
den,  is  the  grandest  Ode  in  the  English  language.  The  best  perhaps 
in  our  recent  literature  is  Lowell's  "  Commemoration  Ode." 

3.  Moral  Odes. —  These  include  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  being 
used  to  express  almost  every  kind  of  sentiment  suggested  by  friend- 
ship, humanity,  patriotism,  and  so  forth. 

Collins's  Ode  on  the  Passions  and  Gray's  Ode  to  Eton  College  are 
familiar  to  all  readers.  Collins  and  Gray  are  the  two  English  writers 
who  have  most  excelled  in  this  species  of  composition. 

4.  Amatory  Odes. —  These,  more  generally  known  as  Love  Songs, 
are  numerous  in  all  literatures. 

23* 


270  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

The  most  successful  writers  of  this  kind  of  verse  among  the 
ancients  were  Anacreon  among  the  Greeks,  and  Horace  among  the 
Romans.  No  one  writer  in  English  stands  pre-eminent  in  this  de- 
partment. Nearly  all  our  great  poets  have  written  successful  love 
verses.  Thomas  Moore  probably  has  contributed  more  largely  than 
any  other  writer  to  this  particular  branch  of  our  literature.  The 
Songs  of  Burns,  though  not  so  numerous  as  those  of  Moore,  are  less 
artificial,  and  show  greater  genius.  Nothing  but  the  Scottish  dia- 
lect, in  which  most  of  the  pieces  are  written,  and  which  is  a  great 
drawback  to  ordinary  readers,  prevents  Burns  from  standing  at  the 
head  of  our  lyric  poets. 

5.  Comic  Songs. —  These  also  have  become  very  numerous.  Being 
intended  mainly  for  amusement,  they  are  often  written  with  great 
license  as  to  their  metrical  construction,  and  sometimes  with  still 
greater  license  in  regard  to  morals. 

Bacchanalian  Songs. —  These,  as  the  name  imports,  are  songs  to 
be  sung  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  In  other  words,  they  are  drinking- 
songs.  They  are  subject  to  still  greater  irregularities  than  the  kind 
last  named.  Their  object  is  to  promote  good  fellowship  in  drink- 
ing, and  they  are  consequently  a  prolific  source  of  drunkenness. 

Bacchanalian  Songs  almost  always  partake  of  the  comic  charac- 
ter, and  not  unfrequently  are  amatory  also.  Indeed,  these  three 
kinds  of  song  last  named  are  closely  allied,  and  the  authors  who 
have  excelled  in  any  one  of  them  have  usually  excelled  in  all. 

Sonnets. —  The  Sonnet,  although  no  longer  used  in  song, 
comes  under  the  head  of  Lyric  poetry. 

The  Sonnet  was  first  cultivated  in  Italy,  and  it  has  there  achieved 
its  greatest  successes.  The  Sonnets  of  Petrarch  are  as  famous  as 
the  odes  of  Pindar,  and  show  as  high  an  order  of  genius.  The  Son- 
net was  first  introduced  into  the  English  by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  From  that  time  to  the  present,  nearly  all 
our  poets  of  any  note  have  written  sonnets,  and  some  of  these  com- 
positions are  among  the  very  best  treasures  of  which  our  literature 
has  to  boast. 

IV.  ELEGIAC  POETRY. 

An  Elegy  is  a  poem,  usually  of  a  sad  and  mournful  kind, 
celebrating  the  virtues  of  some  one  deceased. 


POETRY— PASTORAL.  271 

Its  Form. —  Elegiac  poetry  is  rarely,  if  ever,  in  any  other  measure 
than  the  iambic,  and  the  most  celebrated  elegies  known  to  our  lit- 
erature, such  as  Milton's  Lycidas,  and  Gray's  Elegy  written  in  a 
Country  Church-Yard,  are  in  iambic  pentameter.  The  slow  and 
stately  movement  of  this  line  is  particularly  suited  to  the  purposes 
of  Elegy.  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam,  equally  celebrated  with  the 
two  poems  just  named,  is  in  iambic  tetrameter.  Shelley's  Adonais 
is  in  the  Spenserian  stanza. 

An  Epitaph  is  a  very  short  Elegy,  intended  to  be  inscribed  on  a 
tomb  or  monumental  tablet. 

V.    PASTORAL  POETRY. 

Pastoral  Poetry*  means  properly  that  which  celebrates 
shepherd  or  rustic  life. 

Among  the  Ancients.  —  The  early  pastoral  poets,  such  as  Theoc- 
ritus among  the  Greeks  and  Virgil  among  the  Latins,  described 
the  manners,  occupations,  amusements,  and  loves  of  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses,  and  these  descriptions  are  characterized  by  great 
simplicity  of  style,  suited  to  the  subject. 

Among  the  Moderns.  —  Modern  authors,  who  have  written  pas- 
toral poetry,  though  often  giving  to  their  characters  the  names  and 
occupations  of  rustics,  have  generally  used  this  guise  to  coyer  well- 
bred  and  well-known  city  people.  Thus  Spenser,  in  the  Shepherds' 
Calendar,  speaks  throughout  of  country  lads  and  lasses,  tending 
their  flocks  and  cracking  their  rude  jokes,  but  he  means  by  them 
himself  and  his  fellow-courtiers  in  London.  The  term  Pastoral  is 
now  applied  to  any  poem  which  describes  placid  country-life. 

Eclogues.  —  The  pastoral  poems  of  Virgil  were  called  by  him 
Eclogues,  and  this  term  has  been  much  used  for  modern  poems  of 
the  same  sort. 

Idyls.  —  Theocritus,  the  first  who  wrote  in  this  style,  called  his 
pieces  Idyls.  Hence  the  term  Idyllic,  as  applied  to  pastoral  poetry. 
Hence  also  the  title  "  Idyls  of  the  King,"  applied  by  Tennyson  to  a 
collection  of  his  latest  poems,  though  they  have  little  of  the  charac- 
ter of  pastoral  poetry,  as  commonly  understood. 

*  From  the  Latin  word  pastor,  a  shepherd. 


272  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

VI.    DIDACTIC    POETRY. 

A  Didactic  Poem  is  one  which  aims  chiefly  to  give  instruc- 
tion. 

Its  Character. — The  poetry  of  this  kind,  though  useful,  is  not  in  itself 
of  so  high  an  order  as  the  others  which  have  been  named.  Many  crit- 
ics, indeed,  deny  to  compositions  of  this  kind  the  character  of  poetry. 

The  Objection.  —  If,  say  they,  it  is  of  the  very  essence  of  poetry 
that  it  aims  to  please,  why  should  we  assign  this  name  to  that  which 
aims  only  to  instruct  ?  It  may  be  good  verse,  but  it  is  not  poetry. 
Such  is  the  objection,  and  it  is  not  without  some  truth.  But  it  is 
not  the  whole  truth. 

The  Reply.  —  The  compositions  now  under  consideration,  while 
they  aim  to  instruct,  and  aim  mainly  at  that,  aim  also  to  please. 
The  arguments  and  reasonings  which  they  contain  are  made  much 
more  effective  by  being  put  into  the  poetical  form.  Besides  this,  a 
great  poet  ought,  if  any  one,  to  know  what  is  poetry,  and  what  is 
not,  and  some  of  the  greatest  poets  that  the  world  has  known  have 
written  pieces  in  verse  for  instruction  on  particular  topics,  and  have 
called  these  pieces  poems.  Virgil's  Georgics  is  a  treatise  on  agri- 
culture. Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,  and  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism, 
are  treatises.  Yet  it  would  require  some  hardihood  to  say  that 
they  are  not  poems. 

Meditative  Poetry.  —  Under  the  head  of  Didactic  poetry  may  very 
properly  be  included  not  only  that  which  aims  in  a  formal  manner 
to  instruct,  but  all  poetry  of  a  meditative  kind. 

Its  Abundance.  —  The  poetry  of  this  sort  in  English  is  very  abun- 
dant, and  much  of  it  very  valuable.  We  could  ill  spare  from  English 
literature  Bryant's  Thanatopsis,  Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope,  Aken- 
side's  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,  Rogers's  Pleasures  of  Memory, 
Young's  Night  Thoughts,  Thomson's  Seasons,  Cowper's  Task,  Pope's 
Essay  on  Man,  and  a  host  of  other  poems  of  nearly  equal  celebrity. 

Satire.  —  A  Satire  is  a  poem  intended  to  hold  up  the  follies  of  men 
to  ridicule.  It  aims  to  reform  men  by  appealing  to  their  sense  of 
shame.  Satire  is  properly  impersonal,  exposing  faults  in  general, 
rather  than  exposing  individuals. 

Lampoon.  — A  Lampoon  attacks  individuals. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PROSE   COMPOSITION. 

Prose  is  the  term  applied  to  all  composition  which  is  not 
in  verse.  It  means  the  ordinary,  straightforward  manner  of 
discourse,  in  distinction  from  the  inverted  forms  so  common 
in  poetry. 

Prose  is  from  the  Latin  prosa,  contracted  from  prorsa,  and  that  from  proversa, 
meaning  straightforward. 

The  chief  varieties  of  Prose  composition  are  Letters,  Dia- 
ries, News,  Editorials,  Reviews,  Essays,  Treatises,  Travels, 
History,  Fiction,  Discourses. 

I.  LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  a  written  communication  addressed  by  the  writer 
to  some  other  person  or  persons. 

Subject  Important.  —  Comparatively  few  persons  are  required  to 
practise  any  of  the  other  varieties  of  composition  which  have  been 
named,  whether  prose  or  verse.  But  almost  every  one  has  occasion 
to  write  letters,  and  the  difference  in  the  effect  produced  between 
a  letter  well  written  and  a  letter  badly  written,  is  as  great  as  that 
between  good  and  bad  sermons,  or  between  good  and  bad  bread. 
Surely,  then,  the  subject  of  letter-writing  ought  not  to  be  omitted 
in  any  work  purporting  to  treat  of  Prose  Composition. 

Variety.  —  No  species  of  composition  admits  of  greater  variety. 
Letters  are  as  various  in  style  as  are  the  characters,  the  wants,  the 
occupations  or  the  pleasures  of  men.  Sometimes  writers,  in  treat- 
ing of  literary  or  scientific  subjects,  cast  their  essays  into  the  form 

S  273 


274  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

of  letters.     Such  letters,  however,  are  in  fact  treatises,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  the  rules  for  that  kind  of  composition. 

Real  Letters.  —  Real  letters  are  such  as  grow  out  of  the  actual 
occasions  of  life,  and  are  addressed  by  one  to  another,  as  business, 
pleasure,  affection,  or  fancy  may  dictate.  Whether  a  letter  should 
be  free  and  easy,  or  elaborate,  in  its  style,  whether  it  should  be  plain 
or  ornate,  serious  or  joyous,  matter-of-fact  or  sentimental,  will  de- 
pend upon  the  occasion.  The  general  principles,  therefore,  which 
underlie  all  composition,  must  guide  the  writer  in  the  composition 
of  the  body  or  substance  of  a  letter. 

Blair.  —  On  this  point,  the  following  observations  by  Blair  are  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. 

Correspondence.  —  Epistolary  writing  becomes  a  distinct  species  of  composi- 
tion, subject  to  the  cognizance  of  criticism,  only,  or  chiefly,  when  it  is  of  the 
easy  or  familiar  kind  ;  when  it  is  conversation  carried  on  upon  paper,  between 
two  friends  at  a  distance.  Such  an  intercourse,  when  well  conducted,  may  be 
rendered  very  agreeable  to  readers  of  taste.  If  the  subject  of  the  letters  be  im- 
portant, they  will  be  more  valuable.  Even  though  there  should  be  nothing  very 
considerable  in  the  subject ;  yet,  if  the  spirit  and  turn  of  the  correspondence  be 
agreeable,  if  they  be  written  in  a  sprightly  manner,  and  with  native  grace  and 
ease,  they  may  still  be  entertaining ;  more  especially  if  there  be  any  thing  to 
interest  us,  in  the  character  of  those  who  write  them. 

Letters  of  Distinguished  Persons.  —  Hence  the  curiosity  which  the  public 
has  always  shown  concerning  the  letters  of  eminent  persons.  We  expect  in 
them  to  discover  somewhat  of  their  real  character.  It  is  childish,  indeed,  to  ex- 
pect that  in  letters  we  are  to  find  the  whole  heart  of  the  author  unveiled.  Con- 
cealment and  disguise  take  place,  more  or  less,  in  all  human  intercourse.  But 
still,  as  letters  from  one  friend  to  another  make  the  nearest  approach  to  conver- 
sation, we  may  expect  to  see  more  of  a  character  displayed  in  these  than  in  other 
productions,  which  are  studied  for  public  view.  We  please  ourselves  with  be- 
holding the  writer  in  a  situation  which  allows  him  to  be  at  his  ease,  and  to  give 
vent  occasionally  to  the  overflowings  of  his  heart. 

What  is  Required  in  a  Letter.— Much,  therefore,  of  the  merit  and  the  agree- 
ableness  of  epistolary  writing,  will  depend  on  its  introducing  us  into  some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  writer.  There,  if  anywhere,  we  look  for  the  man,  not  for 
the  author.  Its  first  and  fundamental  requisite  is,  to  be  natural  and  simple ;  for 
a  stiff  and  labored  manner  is  as  bad  in  a  letter  as  it  is  in  conversation.  This 
does  not  banish  sprightliness  and  wit.  These  are  graceful  in  letters,  as  they  are 
in  conversation ;  when  they  flow  easily  and  without  being  studied ;  when  em- 
ployed so  as  to  season,  not  to  cloy.  One  who,  either  in  conversation  or  in  letters, 
affects  to  shine  and  sparkle  always,  will  not  please  long.  The  style  of  letters 
should  not  be  too  highly  polished ;  it  ought  to  be  neat  and  correct,  but  no  more. 
All  nicety  about  words  betrays  study;  and  hence  musical  periods,  and  appear- 
ances of  number  and  harmony  in  arrangement,  should  be  carefully  avoided  in 
letters. 

i 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— LETTERS.  275 

The  Hest  letters  are  commonly  such  as  the  authors  have  written  with  most 
facility.  What  the  heart  or  imagination  dictates,  always  flows  readily ;  but  when 
there  is  no  subject  to  warm  or  interest  these,  constraint  appears ;  and  hence, 
those  letters  of  mere  compliment,  congratulation,  or  affected  condolence,  which 
have  cost  the  authors  most  labor  in  composing.,  and  which,  for  that  reason,  they 
perhaps  consider  as  their  masterpieces,  never  fail  of  being  the  most  disagreeable 
and  insipid  to  the  readers. 

Carelessness.—  It  ought,  at  the  same  time,  to  be  remembered,  that  the  ease 
and  simplicity  which  I  have  recommended  in  epistolary  correspondence,  are  not 
to  be  understood  as  importing  entire  carelessness.  In  writing  to  the  most  inti- 
mate friend,  a  certain  degree  of  attention,  both  to  the  subject  and  the  style,  is 
requisite  and  becoming.  It  is  no  more  than  we  owe  both  to  ourselves  and  to  the 
friend  with  whom  we  correspond.  A  slovenly  and  negligent  manner  of  writing 
is  a  disobliging  mark  of  want  of  respect. 

Special  Directions. —  All  that  needs  to  be  said  in  the  way  of  spe- 
cial directions  refers  to  the  form  of  a  letter.  Custom  has  prescribed 
certain  forms  for  this  species  of  composition,  and  these  forms  for 
the  most  part  are  founded  either  in  practical  convenience  or  in 
social  propriety. 

The  Form. —  The  points  in  the  form  of  a  letter  requiring 
attention  are  the  Heading,  the  Address,  the  Subscription,  and 
the  Superscription. 

1.  The  Heading. 

The  first  thing  to  be  observed  in  writing  a  letter  is  the 
date  or  heading.  This  includes  two  points,  namely,  the  place 
where,  and  the  time  when,  the  letter  is  written. 

Both  these  points  require  attention : 

1.  The  Place. —  In  beginning  a  letter,  we  put,  first  of  all,  at  the 
top  of  the  page,  the  place  at  which  the  letter  purports  to  be  written. 
In  this  heading,  all  those  particulars  should  be  given  which  will  be 
needed  for  addressing  the  reply. 

Street  and  Number.— If  the  letter  comes  from  a  city,  it  is  well  for  the  head- 
ing to  give  the  street  and  number,  as  well  as  the  name  of  the.city.  These  items 
are  usually  arranged  in  the  following  order:  The  number  of  the  house,  the 
name  of  the  street,  the  name  of  the  city ;  thus,  1828,  Pine  Street,  Philadelphia. 

State.—  If  the  city  is  a  very  large  one,  like  New  York  or  Philadelphia,  there 
will  be  no  necessity  for  adding  the  name  of  the  State.  But  in  all  ordinary  cases 
the  name  of  the  State  should  be  added ;  thus,  Easton,  Pennsylvania. 

Contractions.— If  the  name  of  the  State  is  contracted,  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  the  contraction  in  such  a  way  that  what  is  meant  for  one  State  cannot 


276  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

be  mistaken  for  another ;  thus  Md.  (Maryland)  and  Me.  (Maine),  Vt.  (Vermont) 
and  Va.  (Virginia),  in  careless  manuscript,  are  often  confounded.  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  should  always  be  written  out  in  full.  N.  Y.  and  N.  J.  are  so  much 
alike  in  manuscript  that  hundreds  of  letters  every  year  go  to  Trenton,  New  York, 
that  are  meant  for  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 

County.— If  the  town  is  quite  small,  and  especially  if  it  is  at  some  distance 
from  the  place  to  which  the  letter  is  going,  the  name  of  the  County  should  be 
added.  This  enables  one's  correspondent  to  address  his  reply  in  such  a  way  as 
almost  to  insure  its  safe  delivery.  Sometimes  a  letter  is  written  from  a  place 
where  there  is  no  post-office, —  some  small  outlaying  settlement  near  the  post- 
town.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  writer  wishes  to  designate  this  small  place,  he 
should  be  careful  to  add  the  post-town  also;  thus,  Dutch  Neck,  near  Bridgeton, 
Cumberland  County,  New  Jersey. 

Eeason  for  Particularity. —  A  correspondent,  in  replying  to  a  let- 
ter, naturally  casts  his  eye  to  the  heading  to  see  how  his  reply  shall 
be  addressed.  In  the  forms  given  above  he  has  all  the  particulars 
required  for  addressing  this  part  of  his  envelope,  and  in  exactly  the 
order  needed. 

Why  Important. —  These  are  small  matters  apparently,  and  it  may 
seem  like  trifling  to  dwell  upon  them,  but  the  amount  of  trouble 
and  loss  occasioned  by  inattention  to  them  is  inconceivable  by  those 
not  familiar  with  the  subject. 

2.  The  Time. —  It  is  important  in  every  kind  of  letter,  but  espe- 
cially in  business  letters,  to  denote  the  time  of  writing,  that  is,  to 
register  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year.  This  date 
is  the  second  thing  to  be  given.  It  likewise  is  put  at  the  top  of  the 
page,  and  immediately  after  the  name  of  the  place,  and  the  particu- 
lars are  given  in  the  order  just  named;  thus,  January  28,  1878. 

Form  of  Heading. — "Whether  the  heading  should  all  be  in  one  line, 
or  whether  it  should  be  broken  into  two  lines,  the  words  expressing 
the  place  being  in  one  line,  and  those  expressing  the  time  in  another, 
is  a  mere  matter  of  fancy.     It  is,  in  fact,  a  question  of  penmanship. 

If  the  heading  is  long,  it  is  often  broken  into  two  lines ;  if  short, 
it  is  generally  given  in  one.     Thus :  — 

Bursonville,  Bucks  Co.,  Penna., 

March  24, 1878. 
Easton,  Maryland,  April  1, 1878. 

Date  at  the  Bottom. —  Some  letter-writers  have  a  fancy  for  put- 
ting the  time  and  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter  instead  of  the 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— LETTERS.  277 

top,  but  the  custom  is  not  to  be  recommended.  The  practical  con- 
veniences of  the  ordinary  method  are  so  great  that  every  one  en- 
gaged in  business  ought  to  feel  bound  to  conform  to  it. 

2.  The  Address. 

The  Military  Form. —  In  a  letter  addressed  by  one  military  man 
to  another,  an  exact  form  is  prescribed  by  law.  The  person  written 
to  is  addressed  at  the  beginning  of  the  letter  simply  by  his  title,  as 
General,  Captain,  Corporal,  Private,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  and 
without  his  name.  Then,  at  the  end  of  the  letter,  on  the  line  below 
the  signature  of  the  writer,  the  name  of  the  person  addressed  is 
given,  with  his  full  official  title,  and  his  location,  just  as  it  is  to  be  on 
the  envelope.     Thus : — 

Headquarters,  Military  Division  of  the  Mississippi, 
In  the  Field,  Manchester,  Va.,  May  9, 1865. 
General:  T  have  joined  my  army  at  Manchester,  opposite  Richmond,  and 
await  your  orders.  General  Wilson  telegraphs,  through  General  Schofield,  for 
hay  and  forage  for  20,000  animals,  to  be  sent  up  the  Savannah  River  to  Augusta. 
Under  Secretary  Stanton's  newspaper  orders,  taking  Wilson  substantially  from 
my  command,  I  wish  you  would  give  the  orders  necessary  for  the  case. 

W.  T.  Sherman, 
Major-General  Commanding. 
Liedt.-General  U.  S.  Grant, 

Commander-in-Chief. 

Washington  City. 

Ordinary  Letters. — This  form,  prescribed  in  the  military 
service,  is  a  good  basis  for  the  rules  which  should  guide  us 
in  ordinary  letters. 

The  Beginning. —  We  begin  our  letters  with  Sir,  Dear  Sir,  My 
Dear  Sir,  Rev.  Sir,  My  Dear  Dr.  Smith,  My  Dear  Lizzie,  etc.,  etc., 
according  to  the  relations  of  respect,  intimacy,  or  affection  existing 
between  us  and  the  one  addressed.  Between  relatives  and  intimate 
friends  these  addresses  may  properly  enough  often  assume  a  very 
familiar  style,  and  may  afford  the  opportunity  for  expressing  tender 
affection  and  endearment,  as  well  as  for  playfulness  and  fun. 

The  Close. —  At  the  close  of  the  letter,  it  is  well,  in  all  ordinary 

cases,  to  give  the  proper  address  with  some  formality.     The  address 

thus  given  at  the  bottom  should  be  the  same  that  is  placed  on  the 

envelope.     It  is  a  safeguard  against  the  letter  going  at  any  time  by 

24 


278  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

mistake  into  the  wrong  hands.  The  envelope  is  often  lost  or  de- 
stroyed. The  letter,  therefore,  should  be  self-identifying  indepen- 
dently of  the  envelope. 

Identification  Important. —  There  may  be  twenty  thousand  "  Liz- 
zies "  in  the  Directory,  but  there  is  only  one  "  My  Dear  Lizzie  "  to 

the  writer,  and  that  is  "Miss  Elizabeth  Smith,  423 Street, 

Philadelphia."  Where  there  is  in  the  letter  nothing  to  identify 
clearly  both  the  writer  and  the  one  written  to,  there  is  an  appear- 
ance of  something  anonymous  and  clandestine.  A  proper  respect, 
therefore,  for  the  person  addressed,  particularly  if  the  person  is  a 
lady,  requires  the  formal  recognition  implied  by  giving  in  full,  at 
the  close  of  the  letter,  the  proper  name  and  address,  whatever  terms 
of  badinage  or  of  endearment  may  have  preceded  it.  Indeed,  the 
more  free  and  easy  the  first  address  and  the  body  of  the  letter  are, 
the  more  propriety  there  is  in  this  formal  recognition  and  identifi- 
cation at  the  close. 

Business  Letters. —  In  writing  business  letters,  the  military 
rule  above  described  is  often  reversed,  the  full  address  being 
placed  at  the  beginning,  instead  of  at  the  end.     Thus:  — 

Messrs.  Robert  Carter  &  Brothers, 

Broadway,  New  York; 
Dear  Sirs: 

This  method  has  many  advantages,  and  in  letters  on  business  is  to 
be  commended.  In  letters  of  courtesy  or  affection,  the  other  method 
is  preferable. 

3.  The  Subscription. 

In  closing  a  letter,  the  writer  subscribes  his  name  with 
more  or  less  fulness,  and  in  such  terms  of  respect  or  affec- 
tion as  the  circumstances  may  seem  to  warrant. 

Terms  Vary. —  These  terms,  like  those  of  the  address,  vary  of  course 
according  to  the  varying  relations  of  the  parties,  so  that  no  general 
rule  for  them  can  be  given.  Business  letters  very  commonly  close 
with  "Your  obedient  servant,"  or,  if  it  be  a  firm,  "Your  obedient 
servants." 

Initials. —  Many  persons,  in  subscribing  their  name,  have  a  fancy 
for  giving  only  the  initials  of  their  first,  or  given  name;  thus,  R. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— LETTERS.  279 

E.  Jones,  J.  M.  Smith.  No  one  can  determine  from  these  signatures 
whether  the  writer  is  Reuben  or  Rebecca,  James  or  Juliet,  and  the 
person  addressed,  who  is  often  a  stranger,  is  at  a  loss  whether  to 
send  his  reply  to  Mr.  Jones  or  Miss  Jones,  to  Mr.  Smith  or  Miss 
Smith. 

Sex. —  In  signing  one's  name  to  a  letter,  or  to  any  other  document, 
it  is  advisable  that  the  name  should  always  be  so  written  as  to  show 
whether  the  writer  is  a  man  or  a  woman.  This  is  particularly  im- 
portant in  addressing  a  letter  to  a  stranger. 

Married  Women  and  Widows. —  A  married  woman  or  a  widow,  in 
writing  to  a  stranger,  should  also  prefix  Mrs.  to  her  name.  A  mar- 
ried woman  generally  gives,  with  the  Mrs.,  the  first  name  of  her 
husband,  so  long  as  he  lives,  but  drops  it  after  his  death;  thus, 
Yours  truly,  Mrs.  William  Southcote;  Yours  truly,  Mrs.  Joanna 
Southcote.  Supposing  both  these  to  be  written  by  the  same  per- 
son, we  infer  from  the  former  that  the  writer  is  Mr.  Southcote's 
wife ;  from  the  latter,  that  she  is  his  widow. 

Terms  of  Endearment. —  The  particular  terms  of  endearment  used 
in  the  subscription  to  letters  of  love  and  friendship,  will  vary,  of 
course,  with  the  fancy  of  the  writers.  In  general  it  may  be  re- 
marked, however,  that  "loving"  is  a  better  word  than  "affection- 
ate," especially  between  kin. 

Arrangement. —  The  arrangement  of  the  subscription,  as  of  the 
address  and  the  heading,  is  a  matter  of  penmanship  rather  than  of 
composition.  Still,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe  that  the  terms 
of  respect  or  affection  usually  occupy  a  line  by  themselves,  some- 
times two  lines,  and  the  name  of  the  writer  occupies  another  line. 
Thus : 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

John  G.  Smith. 

Examples. —  The  following  addresses  and  subscriptions  have  been 
copied  from  writers  of  good  standing,  and  may  serve  as  models, 
according  to  circumstances : 

My  Dear  Mr.  Jebb, 

Most  truly  yours, 

Alexander  Knox.  " 


280  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

My  Dear  Sir, 

Affectionately  yours, 

John  M.  Mason. 

My  Dear  God-child, 

Your  unseen  God-father  and  friend, 

Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 

My  Dear  Sir  William, 

Yours  very  sincerely, 

Hannah  More. 

My  Dear  Moore, 

Yours  ever,  and  most  affectionately, 

Byron. 

My  Dearest  Love, 

Your  affectionate  husband, 

Robert  Burns. 

4.  The  Superscription. 

By  the  Superscription  of  a  letter  is  meant  the  address  which 
is  written  upon  the  envelope. 

Why  Important. —  Some  care  in  this  respect  is  needed,  both  be- 
cause correctness  in  the  superscription  is  the  chief  means  for  secur- 
ing the  safe  delivery  of  the  letter,  and  because  any  want  of  pro- 
priety in  the  superscription  is  sure  to  attract  criticism.  What  is 
inside  of  one's  letter  may  meet  the  eye  of  only  the  most  indulgent 
friendship,  and  any  little  inelegance  or  carelessness  is  sure  to  be  for- 
given. But  the  outside  usually  undergoes  the  scrutiny  of  many, 
and  it  is  but  a  poor  compliment  to  your  friend,  that  what  he  receives 
from  you  through  the  hands  of  third  parties  should  give  them  the 
impression  that  his  correspondent  is  an  ignoramus  or  a  boor. 

Penmanship. —  The  superscription  of  a  letter,  so  far  as  the  pen- 
manship goes,  should  be  written  with  entire  distinctness  and  legi- 
bility, with  neatness  and  care,  and  with  some  attention  to  elegance, 
but  never  with  ornamental  flourishes. 

Scrupulous  Exactness. — The  superscription  should  be  written  with 
scrupulous  verbal  exactness  and  attention  to  conventional  propriety. 

The  Superscription  consists  of  three  parts,  the  Name  of  the 
person  addressed,  the  Title,  aud  the  Residence. 

1.  The  Name. —  Intimate  friends  often  have  familiar  pet  names 
for  each  other,  nicknames,  which  they  use  in  the  free  intercourse  of 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— LETTERS.  281 

friendship.  These  may  be  allowable  inside  of  the  letter,  but  never 
outside.  The  name  on  the  outside  should  be  written  with  formal 
propriety  and  correctness,  as  it  would  be  expected  to  be  written  by 
an  entire  stranger. 

2.  The  Title. —  The  greatest  difficulty  in  addressing  a  letter  is  to 
know  what  title  to  give. 

Common  Titles.—  Every  one  no\v-a-days,  except  among  the  Friends,  has  some 
title.  A  young  lad  usually  has  the  prefix  Master,  and  any  unmarried  woman 
the  prefix  Miss.  Every  married  woman  or  widow  has  the  prefix  Mrs.,  and  every 
man  who  has  no  higher  title  is  Mr. 

Professional  Titles.—  Medical  men  have  the  title  M.  D.  after  their  names, 
and  legal  gentlemen  that  of  Esquire.*  Others,  who  belong  to  neither  of  these 
professions,  but  who  are  graduates  of  Colleges,  have  some  academic  title  after 
their  names,  as  A.  M.,  or  Ph.  D.,  etc.  In  such  cases  the  Mr.  before  the  name 
should  be  dropped.  It  would  be  lidiculous  to  write  Mr.  John  Peters,  Esq.,  Mr. 
Thomas  Dobbs,  M.  D.  In  like  manner,  it  is  absurd  to  write  John  Bates,  A.  M., 
D.  D. 

Higher  and  Lower  Titles.  —  The  higher  title  presupposes  the  lower.  When 
one  reaches  D.  D.,  or  LL.  D.,  he  drops  his  A.  B.  or  his  A.  M.  It  is  customary, 
however,  to  retain  both  the  two  higher  titles,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  if  one  happens  to 
reach  them  both,  and  the  LL.  D.  in  such  a  case  is  written  last,  as  James  McCosh, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  not  James  McCosh,  LL.  L\,  D.  D. 

Clergymen.  —  Clergymen  always  have  the  prefix  Rev.,  and  Bishops  that  of 
Rt.  Rev.,  and  this  is  usually  retained  even  where  they  have  D.  D.,  or  some  other 
honorary  title,  after  their  name,  as  Rev.  John  Maclean,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Honorables.  —  Judges,  Members  of  Congress,  and  some  other  high  officers  of 
Government,  have  the  prefix  Honorable.  This  title  prefixed  to  a  name  extin- 
guishes the  title  Esquire  after  it,  but  not  any  title  of  special  honor.  It  would  not 
be  right  to  say  Hon.  Joel  Jones,  Esq.,  but  one  may  with  entire  propriety  say  Hon. 
Joel  Jones,  LL.  D. 

Full  Name.  —  Where  an  honorary  prefix  such  as  Rev.  or  Hon.  is  used,  it  is 
more  respectful  to  give  the  full  name,  as  Rev.  William  A.  Butler,  not  Rev.  Mr. 
Butler ;  Hon.  Salmon  P.  Chase,  not  Hon.  Judge  Chase. 

Governors.—  The  Governor  of  a  State  is  usually  addressed  as  His  Excellency, 
and  this  is  written  in  a  separate  line,  with  the  full  name  in  a  second  line,  and 
the  official  title  on  a  third  line.    Thus  :— 

His  Excellency, 

John  F.  Hartranft. 

Governor  of  Pennsylvania. 

*  There  is  a  ridiculous  fashion  among  some  ill-informed  persons  of  appending  Esq. 
to  the  name  of  every  one  who  has  no  other  title.  It  may  be  proper  sometimes  to  ad- 
dress in  this  way  a  man  somewhat  advanced  in  years  and  of  high  social  standing, 
who  happens  to  have  no  special  official  designation  ;  but  to  apply  the  title,  as  is  often 
done,  to  boys  fresh  from  school,  to  clerks  and  salesmen  in  stores,  and  to  common 
day-laborers,  is  a  discourteous  and  uncivil  mockery. 

24* 


282  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

Etiquette  in  Washington  has  prescribed  the  following  form,  in  addressing  the 
President  of  the  United  States :  On  the  outside  of  the  letter, 

To  the  President, 

Executive  Mansion, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Inside :  "  Mr.  President,  I  have  the  honor,"  etc.  These  forms  are  the  strict  eti- 
quette. Not  one  word  more  or  less  is  necessary.  To  write  "  To  the  President  of 
the  United  Stales,"  would  be  surplusage. 

3.  The  Residence.  —  In  writing  upon  the  envelope  of  a  letter  the 
residence  of  the  person  addressed,  the  same  general  rules  should  be 
observed  which  have  already  been  given  for  writing  one's  own  resi- 
dence at  the  top  of  the  letter. 

Name  of  the  State.  —  The  only  additional  rule  needed  is  that  the 
name  of  the  State  should  be  written  out  in  full,  especially  when  the 
letter  is  to  go  to  some  other  State  than  that  in  which  it  is  written. 

The  Reason.  —  There  are  so  many  towns  having  the  same  name,  that  in  the 
haste  of  post-office  business  a  letter  is  often  sent  to  two  or  three  different  places 
before  it  reaches  the  right  one,  and  sometimes  it  is  lost  altogether.  But  there  are 
never  two  post-offices  of  the  same  name  in  the  same  State,  and  the  postmasters 
are  always  familiar  with  the  location  of  all  the  offices  in  their  own  State.  The 
name  of  the  State  being  written  in  full,  in  a  clear,  legible  hand,  on  the  face  of 
the  letter,  it  is  almost  sure  to  go  to  the  right  State,  and  being  once  in  the  State,  it 
is  equally  sure  of  reaching  the  right  office,  and  by  the  most  direct  route.* 

Arrangement  of  the  Items. —  It  is  proper  to  observe,  also,  that  in 
writing  the  residence  on  the  envelope,  instead  of  putting  it  all  in 
one  line,  as  is  done  at  the  head  of  a  letter,  each  item  of  the  resi- 
dence forms  a  separate  line.     Thus: — 

Bridgeton, 

Cumberland  County, 

New  Jersey. 

315  Green  St., 

Trenton, 

New  Jersey. 

Where  to  Put  the  Name. — The  name  and  title  should  occupy  the 
central  portion  of  the  envelope.     If  they  are  placed  higher  up  than 

•At  a  critical  moment  in  American  affairs,  (the  time  of  "John  Brown's  raid  "at 
Harper's  Ferry,)  Governor  Wise,  of  Virginia,  wrote  an  important  letter  to  Governor 
Curtin,  of  Pennsylvania.  The  letter  was  addressed  to  "  Harrisburg.  Pa."  The  coun- 
try postmaster,  being  naturally  more  familiar  with  the  towns  in  his  own  State 
than  with  those  farther  off,  and  mistaking  Pa.  for  Va.,  mailed  the  letter  to  llarris- 

tonjburg,  Virginia,  and  before  the  mistake  was  discovered,  the  rapid  march  of  events 
lad  made  the  letter  too  late. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— DIARIES.  283 

the  middle,  the  appearance  is  awkward,  and  besides,  a  clear  space 
above  is  needed  for  the  postmark  and  stamp.  If  the  name  is  written 
much  below  the  middle,  as  young  misses  have  an  affected  way  of 
doing,  it  does  not  leave  room  below  for  writing  the  residence  with- 
out unsightly  crowding.  It  is  better,  therefore,  both  for  appearance, 
and  for  practical  convenience,  to  let  the  name  and  title  occupy  a  line 
that  is  just  about  central  between  the  top  of  the  envelope  and  the 
bottom.  Nor  should  the  name  be  crowded  off  to  the  extreme  right 
of  the  envelope,  as  inexperienced  persons  are  apt  to  place  it,  but  it 
should  be  placed  about  centrally  between  the  two  ends.  The  name 
stands  out  more  distinctly  to  the  eye,  and  it  gives  a  more  symmet- 
rical appearance  to  the  whole,  if  there  is  a  clear  space  left  at  each 
end. 

H.  DIAEIES. 
A  Diary,  as  the  name  imports,  is  a  daily  record. 

Subjects.  —  The  subjects  recorded  vary,  of  course,  with  the  age, 
sex,  occupation,  and  character  of  the  diarist.  It  is  a  form  of  com- 
position more  used  perhaps  than  any  other  for  recording  religious 
experience.  Travellers  record  thus  their  daily  adventures  and 
observations.  Students,  men  of  business,  men  of  pleasure  even,  are 
wont  to  write  down  from  day  to  day  things  which  interest  them,  or 
which  they  desire  particularly  to  remember. 

Essential  Character.  —  A  Diary  is  the  least  exact  and  formal  of  all 
kinds  of  composition.  The  primary  and  governing  idea  which  should 
control  the  writer  in  its  formation  is,  that  its  pages  are  meant  for 
his  own  eye  only.  He  writes  an  entry  to-day  in  order  that,  some 
years  hence,  when  memory  begins  to  fail,  he  may  see  exactly  what 
to-day's  thoughts  or  experiences  were.  It  is  a  record  made  for  the 
information  of  one's  future  self.  The  first  quality,  therefore,  in  such 
a  record,  is  that  it  be  absolutely  honest. 

Style —  Embellishments  and  figures  of  rhetoric  are  utterly  out  of 
place  in  a  diary.  It  is  not  necessary,  indeed,  to  the  truthfulness  of 
such  a  record,  as  some  seem  to  imagine,  that  it  be  written  in  de- 
fiance of  the  laws  of  grammar.  On  the  contrary,  some  attention 
to  grammatical  and  verbal  accuracy  shows  only  a  proper  self-respect. 
But  studied  elegance,  and  what  are  called  the  graces  of  style,  show 
that  the  whole  thing  is  a  sham,  and  that  the  writer  is  not  making 


284  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

what  he  is  pretending  to  make,  a  private  record  for  his  own  future 
information,  but  is  really  writing  for  effect  upon  the  minds  of  other 
people. 

Dates.  —  It  is  essential  to  the  honesty  and  truthfulness  of  a  diary 
that  the  date  of  an  entry  should  be  that  on  which  the  entry  is 
actually  made.  Inexperienced  persons,  in  keeping  a  diary,  some- 
times omit  making  any  record  for  several  days,  and  then,  on  some 
day  when  they  have  leisure  or  inclination,  make  one  job  of  it,  and 
fill  up  the  missing  days  from  memory.  This  is  to  make  the  whole 
record  valueless,  either  for  themselves  or  for  any  one  else. 

Blank  Days.  — If,  on  any  particular  day,  no  record  is  made,  let  the 
day  stand  blank.  Such  blanks  are  no  blemish  to  a  diary ;  the  best 
diaries  often  have  them.  In  making  the  record  of  a  particular  day, 
the  writer  may,  if  he  chooses,  register  his  recollections  of  what  took 
place  on  previous  days,  but  let  them  be  entered  as  recollections. 
The  inexorable  rule  for  a  diary,  from  which  there  should  be  no  ex- 
ception, is  that  each  entry  have  a  date,  and  that  the  date  mark 
truthfully  the  time  of  the  writing. 

The  Place.  —  Persons  who  keep  a  diary  will  likewise  find  it  of 
great  value  to  themselves  to  register  the  place  where,  as  well  as  the 
time  when,  each  entry  is  made.  Accuracy  and  particularity  in  re- 
gard to  facts  are  indeed  the  essential  points  in  the  composition  of  a 
diary. 

in.  NEWS. 

Next  to  writing  letters,  there  is,  in  modern  times,  no 
species  of  composition  of  which  so  much  is  done  as  News 
writing. 

Amount.  —  The  innumerable  items  which  fill  the  news  columns 
of  the  daily  and  weekly  papers  are  enormous  in  amount,  and  con- 
stitute the  chief  reading  of  the  public  —  the  daily  bread  of  our  lit- 
erary life. 

Literary  Character.  —  The  literature  of  the  news  columns  is  not, 
perhaps,  of  a  very  high  character ;  yet  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  day  cannot  well  be  denied,  and  the  rules  which  should 
govern  it  ought  not  to  be  entirely  ignored  in  any  work  professing 
to  treat  of  the  various  kinds  of  composition  in  actual  use. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— NEWS.  285 

The  True  Medium.  —  News  items  are  for  the  most  part  written  in 
haste.  The  writers  have  not  time  to  correct  and  prune  their  com- 
position as  other  writers  have.  Personally,  therefore,  they  are  not 
held  to  as  strict  an  account  as  other  writers  are,  for  general  accu- 
racy of  diction  and  style.  Yet  every  reader  is  sensible  of  the  differ- 
ence between  a  paragraph  of  news  correctly  written  and  one  incor- 
rectly written,  and  by  the  exercise  of  only  a  moderate  degree  of 
attention,  the  writers  of  these  paragraphs  could  certainly  avoid 
most  of  the  glaring  errors  which  now  mar  their  work. 

Things  to  be  Aimed  at.  —  The  chief  excellencies  of  style  to  be  cul- 
tivated by  the  writer  of  news  are  accuracy,  condensation,  and  per- 
spicuity. The  higher  graces  of  style,  such  as  those  growing  out  of 
the  use  of  rhetorical  figures,  lie  in  a  different  plane.  The  news 
writer  has  not  the  leisure  for  such  ornaments,  nor,  if  he  had,  would 
their  use  be  in  accordance  with  good  taste.  What  the  reader  re- 
quires of  him  is  simply  a  statement  of  facts,  and  this  statement 
should  aim  at  the  three  qualities  just  named. 

1.  Accuracy. —  By  this  I  do  not  here  refer  to  the  truth  of 
the  facts  stated.  That  is  a  question  of  morals,  not  of  style. 
What  I  mean  is  that  the  language  should  be  accurate;  that 
it  should  convey  the  meaning  which  the  writer  intends. 

Sources  of  Mistake. —  News  writers  err  in  this  respect  partly  from 
an  inaccurate  use  of  words,  and  partly  from  an  inaccurate  construc- 
tion of  sentences.     Thus : 

In  reporting  a  man's  death,  if  the  newsman  happens  to  be  one  of  those  ambi- 
tious of  fine  writing,  he  will  tell  us  of  the  man's  "  demise,"  which  is  something 
quite  different  from  what  he  intended. 

Another  reporter,  who  is  careless  in  construction,  speaks  of  "inventing  a 
ballot-box  arrangement  which  cannot  be  stuffed,"  though  how  an  arrangement 
is  to  be  stuffed  is  something  of  a  mystery. 

Another  tells  of  "  a  mad  dog  which  was  killed  after  several  other  dogs  had 
been  bitten  by  Eli  Beck."  He  meant  to  say  that  the  dog  was  killed  by  Eli  Beck. 
What  he  does  say  is  that  the  other  dogs  were  bitten  by  that  gentleman. 

"  The  Military  Committee  did  not  report  against  Mr.  B.,  of  Tennessee,  for  sell- 
ing his  cadetship  to-day."  The  reporter  meant  to  say,  "The  Committee  did 
not  report  to-day." 

The  portions  of  rhetoric  which  are  particularly  important  for 
correcting  inaccuracies  of  this  kind  are  the  chapters  on  Diction  and 
Sentences. 


286  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  Condensation. —  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  the  news 
writer  should  suppress  the  particulars  which  give  body  and 
substance  to  a  statement  of  facts.  These  particulars  are 
usually  exactly  what  the  reader  wants;  and  the  best  re- 
porter, in  any  case  of  special  interest,  is  generally  the  one 
who  can  gather  and  give  these  particulars  with  the  greatest 
minuteness. 

What  is  Meant. — The  condensation  required  of  the  reporter  refers 
to  the  number  of  words  used  in  expressing  any  particular  item  of 
information.  An  expert  will  express  the  item  fully  in  about  half 
the  number  of  words  used  by  a  bungler,  and  the  report  will  increase 
in  vividness  and  sparkle  in  consequence  of  this  condensation.  The 
unnecessary  expletives  with  which  a  news  paragraph  is  so  often 
swelled  out  into  forbidding  proportions  originate  in  bad  taste  and 
conceit.  The  writers  pelt  the  public  with  inflated  bladders,  when 
they  should  use  solid  shot. 

A  Safe  Eule. — A  beginner  in  this  species  of  composition  will  find 
it  a  safe  rule,  after  having  written  a  paragraph,  to  go  over  it  and 
strike  out  on  an  average  about  one-half  the  words.  Any  one  who 
has  not  given  the  subject  some  attention  will  be  surprised  at  the 
skill  in  condensation  acquired  by  some  of  the  newspaper  reporters, 
as  well  as  at  the  want  of  skill  manifested  by  others. 

3.  Perspicuity. — People  read  news  in  haste;  the  most  im- 
perative demand  of  the  writer,  therefore,  is  clearness.  The 
meaning  should  be  so  plain  that  "he  may  run  that  read- 
eth  it." 

Different  from  other  Beading. — There  are  times,  indeed,  when  men 
find  pleasure  in  solving  the  mystery  of  some  hard  sentence  in  Latin 
or  Greek,  or  in  finding  out  the  meaning,  if  there  is  any,  in  some 
orphic  saying  of  Emerson.  But  no  one  is  ever  in  this  mood  over 
his  morning  newspaper.  What  it  has  to  tell  us  in  the  way  of  news 
must  be  told  in  the  clearest  and  most  straightforward  manner. 

How  Obtained.—  This  clearness  is  to  be  obtained  chiefly  by  skill 
in  the  construction  of  sentences.  As  this  topic  has  been  fully 
treated  elsewhere,  the  reader  is  referred  for  further  information  to 
the  chapter  on  that  subject. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— EDITORIALS.        287 

A  Serious  Fault. —  The  most  serious  fault  of  style  among  news 
writers,  at  the  present  day,  is  their  propensity  to  indulge  in  the  use 
of  slang  words  and  phrases.  This  mistake  of  slang  for  wit  is  a  sore 
evil.  It  may  not  perhaps  lead  to  a  deterioration  of  the  language, 
as  many  fear;  for  the  fault  is  too  glaring  and  offensive  to  lead  to 
general  imitation.  But  it  is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  pleasure  with 
which  one  opens  his  paper  for  information  in  regard  to  the  news  of 
the  day.  Slang  is  next  door  to  ribaldry,  and  neither  of  them  is 
pleasant  company  at  the  breakfast  table. 

IV.   EDITORIALS. 

In  the  arrangement  of  a  modern  newspaper  —  and  the  same 
is  true  to  some  extent  in  magazines  —  a  portion  of  the  space 
is  reserved  for  the  expression  of  the  opinions  of  the  editor  or 
editors,  on  the  current  topics  of  the  day.  The  paragraphs 
thus  written  are  one  of  the  peculiar  products  of  modern 
times,  and  form  a  noticeable  species  of  prose  composition. 

Order  of  Composition.  —  The  style  suited  for  the  editorial  columns 
is  not  only  of  a  high  order  of  composition,  but  is  one  peculiar  to 
itself.  A  first-class  editorial  admits,  indeed,  of  almost  every  grace 
and  excellence  of  style  known  to  rhetoric.  But  one  may  have  all 
these  excellencies,  may  be  a  first-class  writer  in  many  other  depart- 
ments of  literature,  and  yet  not  succeed  as  a  writer  of  editorials. 

Not  Impersonal  Truth.  —  An  editorial  is  not  an  essay,  or  a  disser- 
tation ;  not  a  mere  tissue  of  abstract,  impersonal  truths.  On  the 
contrary,  it  comes  to  us  permeated,  through  and  through,  with  the 
personality  of  the  writer.  Whatever  ability,  knowledge,  wit,  or 
wisdom  has  been  shown  by  the  paper,  is  supposed  to  exist  in  some 
unseen  oracle  who  sits  veiled  behind  the  mysterious  "  we,"  and  who 
puts  himself  forth  as  a  public  teacher  and  guide.  The  opinions  ex- 
pressed have  an  added  weight  from  being  given  as  his, — the  opinions 
of  this  unknown,  all-knowing  Editor. 

Editor's  Estimate  of  his  Own  Position. — An  important  requisite, 
therefore,  in  a  writer  of  editorials,  is  the  ability  rightly  to  conceive 
of  himself  as  being  placed  in  this  responsible  position  of  a  public 
teacher.  He  must  know  how  to  use  with  vigor,  and  yet  with  dis- 
cretion, a  certain  form  of  self-assertion.     It  is  not,  however,  the 


288  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC: 

mere  use  of  "  we  "  that  makes  a  piece  of  composition  an  editorial. 
The  best  editorials  employ  this  formula  very  sparingly,  and  some- 
times omit  it  altogether.  But  the  writer,  in  penning  such  articles, 
conceives  himself  as  one  set  to  teach.  His  business  is  to  give  his 
opinions,  and  that  for  the  express  purpose  of  influencing  the  opinions 
of  others. 

Editorials  and  News.  —  From  this  general  description,  it  will  be 
seen  at  once  how  different  is  the  business  of  writing  editorials  from 
that  of  writing  news.  The  one  simply  records  the  facts  of  the  day ; 
the  other  discusses  those  facts,  and  expresses  opinions  about  them, 
commending  or  condemning,  explaining  or  defending,  persuading 
and  exhorting,  assigning  causes  and  suggesting  remedies.  The  one 
writes  with  special  reference  to  clearness,  accuracy,  and  brevity ;  the 
other  calls  to  his  aid  all  the  graces  and  arts  of  the  most  finished 
rhetoric,  and  needs  for  his  task  a  knowledge  as  varied  as  the  entire 
range  of  subjects  embraced  in  the  scope  of  his  paper. 

Fame,  in  its  highest  sense,  is  rarely,  if  ever,  attained  by  writing 
editorials.  Yet  to  write  editorials  of  the  best  class  requires  a  degree 
and  variety  of  talent,  which,  if  employed  in  other  kinds  of  writing, 
would  ensure  high  and  lasting  fame. 

V.  REVIEWS. 

Reviews  are  of  the  nature  of  editorials,  only  much  more 
extended.  A  review  is  a  very  long  editorial.  It  is  an 
article  of  many  pages,  giving  the  opinions  of  a  monthly  or 
a  quarterly  magazine,  instead  of  an  article  of  a  column  or 
part  of  a  column,  giving  the  opinions  of  a  weekly  or  a  daily- 
paper. 

An  Organ.  —  The  magazine,  like  the  paper,  is  the  organ  of  a  cer- 
tain set  of  opinions.  Its  office  is  to  propagate  and  enforce  those 
opinions,  but  in  doing  so  it  enters  more  largely  into  the  details  of 
argument  and  explanation. 

Description.  —  Reviews,  like  editorials,  embrace  almost  every 
variety  of  subject.  They  are  commonly,  though  not  always,  based 
upon  some  book.  They  sometimes  examine  the  book  merely,  some- 
times the  subject  treated  of  in  the  book,  and  often  they  discuss  first 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— REVIEWS.  289 

the  book  and  then  some  subject  discussed  in  the  book,  or  suggested 
by  it. 

Macaulay's  Article  on  Milton.  —  Macaulay's  celebrated  article  in 
the  Edinburgh  Review,  in  1825,  on  the  occasion  of  the  recovery  of 
a  lost  work  of  Milton's,  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  kind  of  review 
just  named.  The  reviewer,  in  the  first  few  paragraphs,  gives  a 
brief,  but  comprehensive  and  sufficiently  critical  judgment  of  the 
book  or  essay  whose  title  is  quoted,  and  then  takes  occasion  to  go 
on  and  give  a  general  review  of  the  character  of  Milton  as  an  author 
and  a  man.    The  following  are  the  introductory  paragraphs  : 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1823,  Mr.  Lemon,  Deputy  Keeper  of  the  State 
Papers,  in  the  course  of  his  researches  among  the  presses  of  his  office,  met  with 
a  large  Latin  manuscript.  With  it  were  found  corrected  copies  of  the  foreign 
despatches  written  by  Milton,  while  he  filled  the  office  of  Secretary,  and  several 
papers  relating  to  the  Popish  Trials  and  the  Rye-House  Plot.  The  whole  was 
wrapped  up  in  an  envelope  superscribed,  "  To  Mr.  Skinner,  Merchant."  On 
examination,  the  large  manuscript  proved  to  be  the  long-lost  Essay  on  the  Doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  which,  according  to  Wood  and  Toland,  Milton  finished 
after  the  Restoration,  and  deposited  with  Cyriac  Skinner.  Skinner,  it  is  well 
known,  held  the  same  political  opinions  with  his  illustrious  friend.  It  is  there- 
fore probable,  as  Mr.  Lemon  conjectures,  that  he  may  have  fallen  under  the 
suspicions  of  the  Government  during  that  persecution  of  the  Whigs  which 
followed  the  dissolution  of  the  Oxford  Parliament,  and  that,  in  consequence 
of  a  general  seizure  of  his  papers,  this  work  may  have  been  brought  to  the  office 
in  which  it  had  been  found.  But  whatever  the  adventures  of  the  manuscript 
may  have  been,  no  doubt  can  exist  that  it  is  a  genuine  relic  of  the  great  poet. 

Mr.  Sumner,  who  was  commanded  by  his  majesty  to  edit  and  translate  the 
treatise,  has  acquitted  himself  of  this  task  in  a  manner  honorable  to  his  talents 
and  to  his  character.  His  version  is  not,  indeed,  very  easy  or  elegant,  but  it  is 
entitled  to  the  praise  of  clearness  and  fidelity.  His  notes  abound  with  interest- 
ing quotations,  and  have  the  rare  merit  of  really  elucidating  the  text.  The 
preface  is  evidently  the  work  of  a  sensible  and  candid  man ;  firm  in  his  own 
religious  opinions,  and  tolerant  towards  those  of  others. 

The  book  itself  will  not  add  much  to  the  fame  of  Milton.  It  is,  like  all  his 
Latin  works,  well  written,  though  not  exactly  in  the  style  of  the  prize  essays  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  There  is  no  elaborate  imitation  of  classical  antiquity ; 
no  scrupulous  purity;  none  of  the  ceremonial  cleanness  which  characterizes 
the  diction  of  our  academical  Pharisees.  He  does  not  attempt  to  polish  and 
brighten  his  composition  into  the  Ciceronian  gloss  and  brilliancy.  He  does  not, 
in  short,  sacrifice  sense  and  spirit  to  pedantic  refinements.  The  nature  of  his 
subject  compelled  him  to  use  many  words 

"  That  would  have  made  Quintilian  stare  and  gasp." 

But  he  writes  with  as  much  ease  and  freedom  as  if  Latin  were  his  mother 
tongue,  and  where  he  is  least  happy  his  failure  seems  to  arise  from  the  careless- 
ness of  a  native,  not  from  the  ignorance  of  a  foreigner.  What  Denham,  with 
great  felicity,  says  of  Cowley,  may  be  applied  to  him.  He  wears  the  garb  but 
not  the  clothes  of  the  ancients. 

25  T 


290  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Throughout  the  volume  are  discernible  the  traces  of  a  powerful  and  inde- 
pendent mind,  emancipated  from  the  influence  of  authority,  and  devoted  to  the 
search  of  truth.  He  professes  to  form  his  system  from  the  Bible  alone,  and  his 
digest  of  Scriptural  texts  is  certainly  among  the  best  that  have  appeared.  But 
he  is  not  always  so  happy  in  his  inferences  as  in  his  citations. 

Some  of  the  heterodox  opinions  which  he  avows  seems  to  have  excited  consid- 
erable amazement,  particularly  his  Arianism  and  his  notions  on  the  subject  of 
polygamy.  Yet  we  can  scarcely  conceive  that  any  person  could  have  read  the 
Paradise  Lost  without  suspecting  him  of  the  former.  Nor  do  we  think  that  any 
reader,  acquainted  with  the  history  of  his  life,  ought  to  be  much  startled  at  the 
latter.  The  opinions  which  he  has  expressed  respecting  the  nature  of  the  Deity, 
the  eternity  of  matter,  and  the  observation  of  the  Sabbath,  might,  we  think,  have 
caused  more  just  surprise. 

But  we  will  not  go  into  the  discussion  of  these  points.  The  book,  were  it  far 
more  orthodox  or  far  more  heretical  than  it  is,  would  not  much  edify  or  corrupt 
the  present  generation.  The  men  of  our  time  are  not  to  be  converted  or  per- 
verted by  quartos.  A  few  more  days  and  this  Essay  will  follow  the  Defensio 
Populi  to  the  dust  and  silence  of  the  upper  shelf.  The  name  of  its  author,  and 
the  remarkable  circumstances  attending  its  publication,  will  secure  to  it  a  certain 
degree  of  attention.  For  a  month  or  two  it  will  occupy  a  few  minutes  of  chat 
in  every  drawing-room,  and  a  few  columns  in  every  magazine,  and  it  will  then, 
to  borrow  the  elegant  language  of  the  play-bills,  be  withdrawn  to  make  room  for 
the  forthcoming  novelties. 

We  wish,  however,  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  interest,  transient  as  it  may  be, 
which  this  work  has  excited.  The  dexterous  Capuchins  never  choose  to  preach 
on  the  life  and  miracles  of  a  saint  till  they  have  awakened  the  devotional  feel- 
ings of  their  auditors  by  exhibiting  some  relic  of  him  —  a  thread  of  his  garment, 
a  lock  of  his  hair,  or  a  drop  of  his  blood.  On  the  same  principle  we  intend  to 
take  advantage  of  the  late  interesting  discovery,  and  while  this  memorial  of  a 
great  and  good  man  is  still  in  the  hands  of  all,  to  say  something  of  his  moral 
and  intellectual  qualities.  Nor,  we  are  convinced,  will  the  severest  of  our  read- 
ers blame  us,  if,  on  an  occasion  like  the  present,  we  turn  for  a  short  time  from 
the  topics  of  the  day  to  commemorate,  in  all  love  and  reverence,  the  genius  and 
virtues  of  John  Milton,  the  poet,  the  statesman,  the  philosopher,  the  glory  of 
English  literature,  the  champion  and  the  martyr  of  English  liberty. 

Nothing  better  in  the  way  of  general  review  of  character  has  ever 
been  written  in  English  than  the  essay  on  Milton  which  follows, 
nnless  it  be  some  of  the  other  reviews  by  the  same  author. 

Macaulay  as  a  Reviewer. —  His  works  in  this  line  are  indeed  mod* 
els  for  study,  and  have  given  the  author  a  world-wide  reputation. 
Macaulay  is  indeed  the  prince  of  reviewers,  and  his  reviews  alone 
are  a  monument  of  genius,  entitling  him  to  lasting  fame.  The  most 
remarkable,  besides  the  review  on  Milton,  are  those  on  Dryden, 
Bacon,  Warren  Hastings,  and  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson. 

Among  other  English  authors  who  have  attained  special  celeb- 
rity as  writers  of  reviews  may  be  named  Jeffrey,  Sidney  Smith, 
Brougham,  and  Gifford. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— ESSAYS.  291 

Reviews,  as  a  distinct  species  of  English  literature,  may  be  dated 
from  the  establishment  of  the  Edinburgh  Review,  in  1802. 

VI.  ESSAYS. 

Different  from  Reviews. —  Essays  differ  in  some  respects 
from  reviews.  A  review,  like  an  editorial,  expresses  the 
opinions  of  some  acknowledged  representative  organ,  and 
its  utterances  have,  besides  their  own  inherent  value,  what- 
ever weight  of  authority  has  been  acquired  by  that  organ. 
But  an  essay  stands  solely  on  its  own  merits.  It  is  in  form 
entirely  impersonal,  or  if  the  author  introduces  himself  at 
all,  it  is  in  the  singular,  "  I,"  not  with  the  editorial  "  we." 

Other  Differences. —  An  essay  rarely  bases  its  remarks  upon  a 
book.  On  the  contrary,  it  begins  usually  with  a  subject,  and  if 
books  are  brought  in  at  all,  it  is  only  incidentally,  and  by  way  of 
reference  or  quotation.  Essays  treat  a  subject  in  a  more  formal 
and  systematic  manner  than  reviews  do,  and  are  divided  into  regu- 
lar, numbered  heads,  chapters,  sections,  and  so  forth,  which  is 
rarely,  if  ever,  the  case  with  reviews. 

Resemblances.  —  While  there  are  these  slight  differences  between 
essays  and  reviews,  there  are  between  them  many  more  points  of 
resemblance.  The  difference,  indeed,  is  in  form  rather  than  in  sub- 
stance. Substantially,  a  large  part  of  the  best  reviews  in  the  lan- 
guage, as  for  instance  a  majority  of  those  written  by  Macaulay,  are 
essays. 

Number  of  Essayists.  —  The  number  of  essayists  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  writers,  for  essays  are  written  by  almost  every  one  who 
is  engaged  in  any  of  the  other  kinds  of  authorship.  Some  few 
authors,  indeed,  have  limited  their  writings  to  essays.  They  are 
essayists  and  nothing  else.  But  the  great  majority  of  essays  which 
have  swelled  the  volume  of  our  literature,  have  been  written  by 
those  whose  main  work  was  in  some  other  vein,  as  historians,  biog- 
raphers, poets,  and  so  forth. 

Mode  of  Publication.  —  Essays  now  usually  appear  first  as  contri- 
butions to  magazines.  After  publication  in  this  form,  they  are 
sometimes  collected  and  published  in  separate  volumes.    .Mr.  Whip- 


292  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

pie  and  Mr.  Tuckerman  have  published  several  such  volumes,  which 
may  be  safely  commended  to  the  notice  of  any  reader  who  desires 
to  become  acquainted  with  this  class  of  writings.  The  best  essays, 
by  far,  however,  which  have  appeared  in  our  recent  literature,  are 
those  by  Lowell,  in  a  volume  entitled  "Among  My  Books." 

Size.  —  Essays  vary  in  size,  from  the  brief  attempts  produced  as 
school  exercises,  to  elaborate  and  lengthened  works,  covering  some- 
times several  hundred  printed  pages. 

VII.   TREATISES. 

A  Treatise  is  a  written  discourse  or  composition  on  some 
subject,  setting  forth  its  principles  in  a  systematic  and  orderly 
manner. 

Different  from  Essays.  —  Treatises  differ  from  essays  mainly  in 
being  more  formal  and  scientific.  They  are  more  frequently  divided, 
than  essays  are,  into  regular  chapters,  sections,  sub-sections,  and 
so  on. 

More  Complete.  —  Another  point  of  difference  is,  that  an  essay 
may  select  for  remark  particular  parts  of  a  subject,  while  a  treatise 
is  expected  to  embrace  the  whole  subject.  An  essay  on  architecture, 
for  instance,  might  merely  show  the  uses  of  architecture,  or  might 
advocate  the  superiority  of  the  Gothic  over  the  classic,  or  might  dis- 
cuss any  one  or  more  of  a  hundred  points  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject; but  a  treatise  on  architecture  would  be  required  to  go  over 
the  whole  subject  in  all  its  varieties  and  subdivisions. 

Difference  of  Style.  —  Treatises  are  usually  plain  in  style,  rarely 
admitting  of  any  kind  of  figures  of  speech,  or  rhetorical  ornament, 
while  essays  abound  in  ornaments  and  figures,  and  give  full  oppor- 
tunity for  the  use  of  every  kind  of  rhetorical  beauty. 

Difference  of  Subject. — Essays  more  commonly  refer  to  some  of 
the  fine  arts,  or  to  subjects  which  are  not  capable  of,  or  have  not 
yet  been  reduced  to,  a  scientific  classification ;  treatises  are  usually 
upon  some  definite  branch  of  science,  as  astronomy,  botany,  algebra, 
logic,  metaphysics,  theology,  and  the  like. 

Impersonal.  —  A  treatise  is  comparatively  impersonal,  setting  forth 
the  bare  facts  and  truths  of  the  subject ;  in  an  essay,  as  in  an  edi- 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— HISTORY.  293 

torial,  the  thoughts  are  more  or  less  tinctured  with  the  personality 
of  the  writer.  A  treatise  is  usually  an  exposition  of  certain  truths ; 
an  essay,  the  advocacy  of  certain  opinions. 

Text  Books,  whether  those  for  scientific  reference,  or  those  for 
study  in  schools  and  seminaries  of  learning,  are  treatises.  This 
branch  of  literature,  though  not  unknown  to  the  ancients,  has  re- 
ceived an  enormous  development  in  modern  times,  and  especially 
within  the  last  fifty  years. 

VIII.  TRAVELS. 

Books  of  travel  come  nearer  to  diaries  than  to  any  other 
kind  of  writing. 

Compared  with  a  Diary.  —  A  book  of  travel  usually  contains  a 
record  of  things  seen  or  done  from  day  to  day,  and  in  that  respect 
is  like  a  diary.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  travels  are  written,  not  to 
assist  the  memory  of  the  writer,  but  avowedly  for  the  information 
of  others,  and  this  will  naturally  affect  the  style. 

Accuracy.  —  The  traveller,  like  the  diarist,  is  under  a  special  obli- 
gation of  accuracy  in  regard  to  dates,  and  indeed  to  facts  generally. 
That  which  gives  the  chief  value  to  a  book  of  travel  is  the  informa- 
tion which  it  contains.  It  tells  the  reader  things  which  he  cannot 
see  for  himself.  The  traveller  is  in  the  witness-box,  and  we  look 
to  him  for  the  exact  truth. 

Other  Qualities. — While  accuracy  is  the  first  quality  demanded  in 
travels,  they  admit  freely  all  the  other  graces  of  style.  Some  of  the 
travellers  of  the  present  day  are  very  successful  as  humorists,  and 
their  books  abound  in  passages  of  eloquent  description  and  exciting 
narrative.  But  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  of  works  written  in  the 
haste  and  excitement  of  actual  travel, —  and  unless  so  written  they 
want  some  of  that  freshness  and  truth  which  are  their  highest  charm, 
—  that  they  should  have  that  entire  finish  of  style  which  we  demand 
in  works  written  under  circumstances  of  more  deliberation. 

Travels  are  often  written  in  the  form  of  letters. 

IX.  HISTORY. 

History  holds  about  the  same  rank  in  prose  composition 
that  the  epic  does  in  poetry.     The  proper  office  of  the  histo- 
25* 


294  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

rian  is  to  record  important  events  for  the  instruction  of  man- 
kind. The  fundamental  qualities  required  of  him,  therefore, 
are  impartiality,  fidelity,  and  accuracy. 

The  observations  which  follow  are  taken  from  Blair,  with  some 
unimportant  alterations. 

General  Character  of  History. — It  is  not  every  record  of  facts  that 
is  entitled  to  the  name  of  history,  but  such  a  record  as  enables  us  to 
apply  the  transactions  of  former  ages  for  our  own  instruction.  The 
facts  ought  to  be  momentous  and  important;  represented  in  connec- 
tion with  their  causes,  traced  to  their  effects,  and  unfolded  in  clear 
and  distinct  order.  For  wisdom  is  the  great  end  of  history.  It  is 
designed  to  supply  the  want  of  experience.  Its  object  is  to  enlarge 
our  views  of  the  human  character,  and  to  give  full  exercise  to  our 
judgment  on  human  affairs.  It  must  not,  therefore,  be  a  tale,  cal- 
culated to  please  only,  and  addressed  to  the  fancy.  Gravity  and 
dignity  are  essential  characteristics  of  history;  no  light  ornaments 
are  to  be  employed,  no  flippancy  of  style,  no  quaintness  of  wit.  But 
the  writer  must  sustain  the  character  of  a  wise  man,  writing  for  the 
instruction  of  posterity,  one  who  has  studied  to  inform  himself  well, 
who  has  pondered  his  subject  with  care,  and  addresses  himself  to 
our  judgment  rather  than  to  our  imagination.  At  the  same  time, 
historical  writing  is  by  no  means  inconsistent  with  ornamented  and 
spirited  narration.  It  admits  of  much  high  ornament  and  elegance ; 
but  the  ornaments  must  be  always  consistent  with  dignity ;  they 
should  not  appear  to  be  sought  after,  but  to  rise  naturally  from  a 
mind  animated  by  the  events  which  it  records. 

Unity  of  Subject. —  In  the  conduct  and  management  of  his  subject, 
the  first  thing  requisite  in  an  historian,  is  to  give  it  as  much  unity  as 
possible;  that  is,  his  history  should  not  consist  of  separate,  uncon- 
nected parts  merely,  but  should  be  bound  together  by  some  connect- 
ing principle,  which  shall  make  the  impression  on  the  mind  of  some- 
thing that  is  one,  whole,  and  entire.  It  is  inconceivable  how  great 
an  effect,  this,  when  happily  executed,  has  upon  the  reader,  and  it 
is  surprising  that  some  able  writers  of  history  have  not  attended  to 
it  more.  Whether  pleasure  or  instruction  be  the  end  sought  by 
the  study  of  history,  either  of  them  is  enjoyed  to  much  greater 
advantage  when  the  mind  has  always  before  it  the  progress  of 
some  one  great  plan  or  system  of  action  —  when  there  is  some  point 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— HISTORY.  295 

or  centre,  to  which  we  can  refer  in  the  various  facts  related  by  the 
historian. 

Complex  Subjects. —  In  general  histories,  which  record  the  affairs 
of  a  whole  nation  or  empire  throughout  several  ages,  this  unity  is 
necessarily  imperfect.  Yet,  even  there,  some  degree  of  it  can  be 
preserved  by  a  skilful  writer.  For  though  the  whole,  taken  together, 
be  very  complex,  yet  the  great  constituent  parts  of  it  form  so  many 
subordinate  wholes  when  taken  by  themselves ;  each  of  which  can 
be  treated  both  as  complete  within  itself,  and  as  connected  with 
what  goes  before  and  follows.  In  the  history  of  a  monarchy,  for 
instance,  every  reign  should  have  its  own  unity  —  a  beginning,  a 
middle,  and  an  end,  to  the  system  of  affairs ;  while  at  the  same  time, 
we  are  taught  to  discern  how  that  system  of  affairs  rose  from  the 
preceding,  and  how  it  is  inserted  into  what  follows. 

Chronologioal  Order. — The  historian  must  not  indeed  neglect  chron- 
ological order,  with  a  view  to  render  his  narration  agreeable.  He 
must  give  a  distinct  account  of  the  dates,  and  of  the  coincidence  of 
facts.  But  he  is  not  under  the  necessity  of  breaking  off  always  in 
the  middle  of  transactions  in  order  to  inform  us  of  what  was  hap- 
pening elsewhere  at  the  same  time.  He  discovers  no  art,  if  he  can- 
not form  some  connection  among  the  affairs  which  he  relates,  so  as 
to  introduce  them  in  a  proper  train.  He  will  soon  tire  the  reader 
if  he  goes  on  recording,  in  strict  chronological  order,  a  multitude  of 
separate  transactions,  connected  by  nothing  else  but  their  happening 
at  the  same  time. 

Qualities  of  Historical  Narration. —  Let  us  next  proceed  to  consider 
the  proper  qualities  of  historical  narration.  The  first  virtue  of  his- 
torical narration  is  clearness,  order,  and  due  connection.  To  attain 
this  the  historian  must  be  completely  master  of  his  subject ;  he  must 
see  the  whole  as  at  one  view,  and  comprehend  the  chain  and  depend- 
ence of  all  its  parts,  that  he  may  introduce  every  thing  in  its  proper 
place,  that  he  may  lead  us  smoothly  along  the  track  of  affairs  which 
are  recorded,  and  may  always  give  us  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  how 
one  event  arises  out  of  another. 

Keeping  up  the  Connection. — Nothing  tries  an  historian's  abilities 
more,  than  so  to  lay  his  train  beforehand,  as  to  make  us  pass  natu- 
rally and  agreeably  from  one  part  of  his  subject  to  another;  to 


296  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

employ  no  clumsy  and  awkward  junctures;  and  to  contrive  ways 
and  means  of  forming  some  union  among  transactions  which  seem 
to  be  most  widely  separated  from  cne  another. 

Gravity  of  Style.—  In  the  next  place,  as  history  is  a  very  dignified 
species  of  composition,  gravity  must  always  be  maintained  in  the 
narration.  There  must  be  no  meanness  or  vulgarity  in  the  style ; 
no  quaint  or  colloquial  phrases ;  no  affectation  of  pertness  or  of  wit. 
The  smart  or  the  sneering  manner  of  telling  a  story  is  inconsistent 
with  the  historical  character.  I  do  not  say  that  an  historian  is  never 
to  let  himself  down.  He  may  sometimes  do  it  with  propriety,  in 
order  to  diversify  the  train  of  his  narration,  which,  if  it  be  perfectly 
uniform,  is  apt  to  become  tiresome.  But  he  should  be  careful  never 
to  descend  too  far,  and  on  occasions  where  a  light  or  ludicrous  anec- 
dote is  proper  to  be  recorded,  it  is  generally  better  to  throw  it  into 
a  note  than  to  hazard  becoming  too  familiar  by  introducing  it  into 
the  body  of  the  work. 

Dulness  to  be  Avoided. —  But  an  historian  may  possess  these  qual- 
ities of  being  perspicuous,  distinct,  and  grave,  and  may  notwith- 
standing be  a  dull  writer,  in  which  case  we  shall  reap  little  benefit 
from  his  labors.  We  shall  read  him  without  pleasure,  or,  most 
probably,  we  shall  give  over  reading  him  at  all.  He  must,  there- 
fore, study  to  render  his  narration  interesting. 

How  to  Keep  Up  the  Interest. —  An  historian  that  would  interest 
us  must  know  when  to  be  concise,  and  where  he  ought  to  enlarge; 
passing  concisely  over  slight  and  unimportant  events,  but  dwelling 
on  such  as  are  striking  and  considerable  in  their  nature,  so  pregnant 
with  consequences;  preparing  beforehand  our  attention  to  them, 
and  bringing  them  forth  into  the  most  full  and  conspicuous  light. 
He  must  also  attend  to  a  proper  selection  of  the  circumstances 
belonging  to  those  events  which  he  chooses  to  relate  fully.  General 
facts  make  a  slight  impression  on  the  mind.  It  is  by  means  of  cir- 
cumstances and  particulars  properly  chosen  that  a  narration  be- 
comes interesting  and  affecting  to  the  reader.  These  give  life,  body, 
and  coloring  to  the  recital  of  facts,  and  enable  us  to  behold  them 
as  present  and  passing  before  our  eyes.  It  is  this  employment 
of  circumstances  in  narration  that  is  properly  termed  historical 
painting. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— HISTORY.  297 

Delineation  of  Characters. —  The  drawing  of  characters  is  one  of 
the  most  splendid,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  difficult, 
ornaments  of  historical  composition.  For  characters  are  generally 
considered  as  professed  exhibitions  of  fine  writing,  and  an  historian 
who  seeks  to  shine  in  them  is  frequently  in  danger  of  carrying  re- 
finement to  excess,  from  a  desire  of  appearing  very  profound  and 
penetrating.  He  brings  together  so  many  contrasts,  and  subtle 
oppositions  of  qualities,  that  we  are  rather  dazzled  with  sparkling 
expressions  than  entertained  with  any  clear  conception  of  a  human 
character.  A  writer  who  would  characterize  in  an  instructive  and 
masterly  manner  should  be  simple  in  his  style,  and  should  avoid  all 
quaintness  and  affectation,  at  the  same  time  not  contenting  himself 
with  giving  us  general  outlines,  but  descending  into  those  pecu- 
liarities which  mark  a  character  in  its  most  strong  and  distinctive 
features. 

Sound  Morals  to  be  Enforced. — As  history  is  a  species  of  writing 
designed  for  the  instruction  of  mankind,  sound  morality  should 
always  reign  in  it.  Both  in  describing  characters  and  in  relating 
transactions,  the  author  should  always  show  himself  to  be  on  the 
side  of  virtue.  To  deliver  moral  instruction  in  a  formal  manner, 
falls  not  within  his  province,  but  both  as  a  good  man  and  a  good 
writer,  we  expect  that  he  should  discover  sentiments  of  respect  for 
virtue,  and  an  indignation  at  flagrant  vice.  To  appear  neutral  and 
indifferent  with  respect  to  good  and  bad  characters,  and  to  affect 
a  crafty  and  political,  rather  than  a  moral  turn  of  thought,  will, 
besides  other  bad  effects,  derogate  greatly  from  the  weight  of  his- 
torical composition,  and  will  render  the  strain  of  it  much  more  cold 
and  uninteresting.  We  are  always  most  interested  in  the  trans- 
actions which  are  going  on  when  our  sympathy  is  awakened  by  the 
story,  and  when  we  become  engaged  in  the  fate  of  the  actors.  But 
this  effect  can  never  be  produced  by  a  writer  who  is  deficient  in 
sensibility  and  moral  feeling. 

Annals. —  Annals  are  an  inferior  kind  of  history.  A  book 
of  annals  is  a  collection  of  facts  arranged  in  strict  chrono- 
logical order. 

Annals  rather  contain  the  materials  of  history  than  constitute 
history  itself.  The  chief  qualities  required  in  a  writer  of  annals  are 
that  he  be  clear,  accurate,  and  complete. 


298  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Memoirs. —  Memoirs  also  are  a  species  of  historical  writing, 
though  not  strictly  constituting  history. 

Less  Complete. — The  writer  of  memoirs  does  not  pretend  to  give 
a  complete  account  of  transactions,  but  only  to  relate  such  portions 
of  them  as  he  himself  had  access  to,  or  had  something  to  do  with. 
We  do  not  expect  from  him  the  same  profound  research,  or  the  same 
varied  information,  that  we  expect  from  the  historian. 

Less  Dignified.  —  The  writer  is  not  held  to  the  same  unvarying 
gravity  and  dignity,  or  to  the  same  impersonal  style  of  narration 
that  is  required  in  history.  He  may  indulge  in  familiar  anecdotes 
and  pleasantry,  and  may  freely  mix  up  himself  and  his  own  personal 
affairs  with  the  public  affairs  which  he  commemorates.  Memoirs 
are,  in  fact,  of  the  nature  of  reminiscences.  They  are  a  testimony 
by  an  eye-witness.  Hence  they  have  a  double  character.  They  are 
usually  very  entertaining  to  be  read  by  themselves,  and  they  fur- 
nish to  the  regular  historian  one  of  his  most  valuable  storehouses  of 
materials. 

Biography. — A  Biography  is  the  history  of  one  individual. 
Biography  is,  therefore,  a  species  of  historical  composition. 

Different  from  History.  —  Biography  differs  from  history  proper, 
not  only  in  being  thus  limited  in  its  range,  but  also  in  being  less 
stately  and  formal.  In  this  latter  respect  biography  corresponds 
with  memoirs,  descending  to  the  particulars  of  private  life  and  to 
familiar  incidents. 

Different  from  Memoirs.  —  Biography  differs,  on  the  other  hand, 
from  memoirs,  in  being  complete  in  itself.  It  is  no  objection  to  me- 
moirs that  they  are  fragmentary,  containing  only  selected  portions 
of  the  transactions  commemorated.  But  a  biography  of  a  man  is 
expected  to  give  his  whole  life,  just  as  the  history  of  a  nation  or  of 
a  period  is  expected  to  give  its  whole  history. 

Autobiography  is  a  biography  of  a  person  written  by  himself. 

X.  FICTION. 

A  Fiction  is  a  story  made  up  of  incidents  invented  for  the 
purpose. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— FICTION.  299 

Its  Prevalence.  —  Fictitious  writing  has  existed  in  all  ages  of  the 
world,  and  in  nearly  all  departments  of  literature,  but  it  has  received 
its  greatest  enlargement  in  the  present  age.  The  works  of  fiction 
now  produced  exceed  in  number  those  of  any  other  class,  if,  indeed, 
they  do  not  equal  those  of  all  other  classes  combined.  Fully  one- 
half  of  all  the  reading  done  by  the  community  is  the  reading  of 
fiction. 

Names. — The  names  most  commonly  given  to  works  of  fiction  are 
Novels  and  Romances.  These  terms  are  for  the  most  part  used  in- 
discriminately, though  romances  more  strictly  mean  a  class  of  fiction 
in  which  the  manners,  incidents,  and  sentiments  are  of  a  rather  ex- 
travagant kind. 

Kinds.  —  Novels  are  divided  into  two  leading  classes,  historical 
and  domestic. 

Historical  Novels  are  those  in  which  the  events  of  history  are 
introduced,  and  historical  persons  are  represented  as  talking  and 
acting.  The  most  celebrated  historical  novels  are  those  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  The  historical  novel  may  be  made  very  interesting, 
and  may  help  the  dull  and  unimaginative  reader  in  forming  a  more 
distinct  conception  of  past  events,  but  it  is  very  unsafe  as  a  guide  in 
studying  history.  The  novelist  naturally  shapes  the  facts  to  suit  his 
story,  instead  of  shaping  his  story  to  suit  the  facts.  The  great  mass 
of  novels,  however,  are  of  a  domestic  character,  the  incidents  being 
such  as  occur  in  private  life. 

Appeal  to  Curiosity.  —  The  novelist  relies  for  the  interest  of  his 
story,  first  and  mainly,  upon  the  curiosity  of  the  reader.  The  inci- 
dents being  of  the  writer's  own  creation,  he  contrives  so  to  arrange 
them  as  to  conceal  from  his  readers  the  issue  of  the  affair  until  the 
very  end  of  the  story.  If  the  novelist  were  to  begin  his  story  by 
acquainting  his  readers  at  the  outset  with  the  issue  of  the  whole,  so 
that  we  should  know  from  the  first  who  is  to  be  married  or  killed, 
and  how  things  generally  are  to  turn  out,  which  is  in  the  main  our 
condition  in  sitting  down  to  read  history  or  biography,  an  epic,  or  a 
play,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  not  one  novel  in  a  hundred  would  ever  be 
read. 

Other  Means.  —  Curiosity,  however,  is  not  the  only  means  on 
which  the  novelist  relies  to  secure  readers.     The  incidents  and  the 


3C0  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

characters  being  entirely  of  his  own  creation,  he  can,  if  skilful 
enough,  make  them  of  the  kind  which  will  be  in  themselves  pleas- 
ing and  attractive,  and  he  can  use  at  will  all  those  advantages  of 
combination  and  contrast  which  tend  to  heighten  the  effect. 

Delineation  of  Character.  —  Another  great  source  of  interest  in 
novels  is  the  opportunity  they  give  for  the  delineation  of  character. 
In  history  the  writer  must  take  his  characters  as  he  finds  them. 
In  fiction  the  writer  creates  his  characters.  He  clothes  them  with 
such  qualities  as  he  pleases,  and  then  creates  for  them  circumstances 
which  enable  them  to  act  out  these  qualities  in  the  sight  of  the 
reader.  Such  a  mental  process,  that  is,  obtaining  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  a  character,  and  then  seeing  that  character  developed  in 
action  before  our  eyes,  is  always  a  source  of  pleasure,  and  the 
novelist  has  a  field  for  the  employment  of  it,  bounded  only  by  his 
own  faculties  of  conception  and  invention. 

General  Effect.  —  The  greater  part  of  the  fiction  now  published 
and  read  has  no  other  object  than  mere  pleasure,  and  that  of  a  very 
low  kind.  Novels  of  this  sort  have  a  debasing  effect  upon  the  public 
mind.  The  reading  of  them  is  a  mere  mental  dissipation,  unfitting 
the  reader  both  for  reading  of  a  more  elevated  kind,  and  for  the 
active  duties  of  life. 

Effect  on  the  Memory.  — I  give  it,  too,  as  my  opinion,  the  result 
of  a  long  course  of  observation,  in  a  profession  peculiarly  fitted  for 
such  a  purpose,  that  much  and  indiscriminate  novel-reading  has  a 
most  disastrous  effect  upon  the  memory.  Indeed,  I  am  not  sure 
that  the  debilitating  effect  upon  the  mental  faculties  is  not  a  more 
serious  evil  even  than  its  relaxing  influence  upon  the  conscience  and 
the  moral  sensibilities. 

Novels  of  a  Higher  Aim.  —  A  good  many  novels  have  a  higher 
aim,  being  intended  by  their  authors  to  disseminate  theories  of  life 
and  morals,  and  even  of  religion.  Dickens's  novels,  for  instance, 
are  aimed  mainly  at  social  vices,  and  so  efficiently  has  he  propagated 
his  opinions  on  these  subjects,  by  means  of  his  fictions,  that  he  has 
created  a  strong  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  his  social  views. 

Religious  Fiction.  —  No  inconsiderable  part  of  the  fiction  now  pro- 
duced has  for  its  professed  object  the  inculcation  of  religious  truth. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— DISCOURSES.         301 

Nine-tenths  of  all  the  religious  books  written  for  children  are  fictions 
of  this  kind.  The  Sunday-school  books,  of  which  not  less  than  three 
or  four  millions  are  read  every  week  in  the  United  States  alone, 
are  almost  exclusively  fictions.  The  subject  demands  the  serious 
consideration  of  those  intrusted  with  the  religious  training  of  the 
young. 

XI.  DISCOURSES. 

A  Discourse  differs  from  the  other  kinds  of  composition 
which  have  been  described,  in  that  it  is  intended  to  be  read 
or  spoken  to  the  persons  addressed,  instead  of  being  read  by 
them. 

In  an  essay,  a  review,  or  a  history,  the  writer  prepares  something 
which  others  are  to  read  for  themselves.  In  a  discourse  of  any  kind 
he  prepares  something  which  he  intends  himself  to  read  or  speak  to 
others.  Discourses  which  have  been  written  may,  of  course,  be  read 
by  any  one,  as  well  as  by  the  writer.  But  that  is  not  their  primary 
intention.  They  are  in  the  form  of  an  address  to  be  presented  by 
the  author  to  an  audience. 

Kinds  of  Discourse.  —  The  principal  kinds  of  discourses 
are  Orations,  Addresses,  Sermons,  Lectures,  and  Speeches. 

Orations.  —  An  Oration  is  a  discourse  of  the  most  formal 
and  elaborate  kind. 

Occasions.  —  An  Oration  is  generally  in  commemoration  of  some 
important  public  event,  or  in  eulogy  of  some  distinguished  person, 
or  on  an  occasion  of  some  kind  justifying  the  most  deliberate  and 
careful  preparation.  An  oration,  therefore,  more  than  any  other 
kind  of  discourse,  must  have  a  full  and  rounded  completeness  as  a 
work  of  art.  The  most  finished  specimen,  probably,  of  an  oration, 
in  recent  times,  was  the  eulogy  on  Washington,  by  Edward  Everett. 

Addresses.  —  An  Address  is  a  discourse  nearly  akin  to  an 
oration,  but  somewhat  less  formal  in  character,  and  much  less 
restricted  in  regard  to  the  occasion  and  the  subject. 

Occasions.  —  One  may  deliver  an  address  on  almost  any  occasion, 
and  on  every  variety  of  subject,  lowly  or  lofty.     The  Governor  of 
26 


302  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

a  State,  the  President  of  a  College,  or  the  Chairman  of  a  political 
meeting,  on  entering  upon  the  duties  of  his  office,  usually  delivers 
an  address. 

College  Addresses.  —  Perhaps,  in  the  United  States,  the  kind  of 
address  which  has  received  most  attention  is  that  of  which  we 
have  annually  so  many  examples  at  our  College  Commencements. 
I  refer  not  to  the  speeches  of  the  graduating  classes,  but  to  those 
delivered  before  the  literary  societies  of  the  College,  and  on  their 
invitation,  by  graduates  of  high  standing  in  the  various  profes- 
sions. 

Sermons. — A  Sermon  is  a  formal  discourse  by  a  clergy- 
man, intended  for  religious  instruction,  and  founded  usually 
on  some  passage  of  Scripture. 

Sermons  are  too  well  known  to  require  further  description. 

Lectures. — A  Lecture  is  a  discourse  intended  primarily  for 
instruction,  and  on  any  subject,  secular  or  religious. 

Kinds  of  Lectures. — Lectures  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
three  different  kinds,  namely:  1.  Those  delivered  in  schools,  col- 
leges, and  other  institutions  of  learning,  for  the  direct  purpose  of 
instructing  a  class.  2.  Those  delivered  in  churches,  usually  on  some 
week-day  evening,  for  the  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and  ex- 
hortation, and  less  formal  than  a  sermon.  3.  Those  delivered  before 
a  popular  audience,  on  some  secular  subject,  and  intended  partly  to 
entertain,  and  partly  to  instruct. 

Lectures  so  called. —  There  is  a  class  of  public  performances,  whose 
sole  object  is  to  create  amusement,  and  that  not  of  the  most  ele- 
vated kind.  These  are  sometimes  called  lectures,  but  they  have  no 
legitimate  claim  to  the  title,  any  more  than  the  performances  of  a 
band  of  negro  minstrels. 

Speeches. —  Every  kind  of  discourse  is  in  some  sense  a 
speech.  But  the  term  Speech  is  often  used  in  a  special  and 
restricted  sense.  In  this  sense  it  differs  from  the  other  kinds 
of  discourse  in  being  always  intended  to  be  spoken,  while  the 
others  are  mainly  intended  to  be  read ;  in  not  being  intended 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— DISCOURSES.         303 

for  instruction,  as  the  others  mostly  are;  and  in  not  being 
limited  to  any  particular  subject  or  occasion. 

Occasions. —  The  most  common  places  for  speech-making  are 
courts  of  justice,  legislative  assemblies,  and  popular  conventions 
of  various  kinds,  political,  educational,  and  religious. 

Speeches  are  usually  delivered  extemporaneously,  that  is,  they  are 
composed  at  the  time  and  in  the  act  of  delivery,  though  they  may 
be,  and  often  are,  composed  beforehand  and  committed  to  memory. 

The  kinds  of  discourse  here  enumerated  by  no  means  exhaust  the 
subject.  They  include,  however,  the  principal  varieties,  and  are  suf- 
ficiently comprehensive  for  the  present  purpose. 

General  Principles. —  In  the  construction  of  all  the  more  formal 
kinds  of  discourse,  certain  general  principles  are  to  be  observed. 
These  are  the  following: 

1.  Unity. — A  Discourse  which  is  to  produce  a  profound 
impression  must  maintain  a  certain  unity  of  subject.  This 
is  as  important  in  a  public  discourse  as  it  is  in  an  epic  poem. 

Explanation. —  A  speaker  does  not  infringe  upon  the  unity  of  his 
discourse  by  introducing  a  variety  of  topics,  provided  all  those  top- 
ics have  some  common  bond  of  union,  connecting  and  subordinating 
them  all  to  one  leading  thought  or  purpose.  A  man  might  in  one 
lecture,  without  serious  distraction  of  the  minds  of  his  audience, 
discourse  on  Bryant,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  and  Boker,  because  they 
are  all  poets,  all  Americans,  and  all  contemporaries,  and  he  might 
use  them  to  illustrate  some  one  general  topic  in  literature,  or  literary 
history.  But  were  he  to  attempt  in  the  same  lecture  to  discuss  Bry- 
ant's Thanatopsis,  the  character  of  Wellington,  and  the  discovery  of 
gunpowder,  he  would  assuredly  distract  the  minds  of  his  audience, 
and  weaken  the  effect  of  whatever  he  had  to  say. 

2.  Adaptation  to  the  Audience. — In  a  Discourse  to  be  read 
or  spoken  to  others,  we  must,  both  in  the  subject  selected  and 
in  the  manner  of  treating  it,  have  reference  to  the  character 
of  the  persons  addressed. 

Different  from  a  Treatise. —  Discourses  differ  in  this  respect  from 
ordinary  treatises,  in  which  the  author  has  to  look  at  his  subjeot 


304  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

only.  A  man  might  with  propriety  lecture  on  differential  calculus 
to  a  company  of  savans  or  to  an  advanced  class  in  college,  but  he 
could  hardly  do  so  to  a  mixed  popular  assembly.  Whoever  wishes 
to  succeed  as  a  lecturer,  or  as  a  speaker  of  any  kind,  must  study  his 
audience  as  well  as  his  subject,  and  adapt  his  discourse  both  to  the 
occasion  and  the  hearers. 

3.  Symmetry. —  A  Discourse  is  symmetrical  when  it  has 
all  the  parts  belonging  to  such  a  production,  and  these  parts 
are  all  in  due  order  and  correlation. 

Parts  of  a  Discourse.  —  The  parts  properly  belonging  to  a  formal 
discourse  are — 1.  The  Introduction.  2.  The  Statement  of  the  Sub- 
ject. 3.  The  Main  Discourse.  4.  The  Conclusion.  On  each  of 
these  a  few  observations  will  be  made. 

1.  The  Introduction.  —  A  formal  introduction  or  exordium  is  not 
always  required.  Its  object,  when  used,  is,  first,  to  conciliate  the 
goodwill  of  the  hearers;  secondly,  to  gain  their  attention;  thirdly, 
to  make  them  open  to  conviction  by  removing  any  prejudices  or 
prepossessions  they  may  have  against  the  topic  or  the  cause  which 
we  are  about  to  present.  As  a  good  introduction  is  one  of  the 
most  important,  so  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  a  discourse. 

Things  to  be  Observed.  —  The  rules  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  it  are:  first, 
that  it  be  easy  and  natural,  arising  from  the  subject  itself;  secondly,  that  it  be 
expressed  with  more  than  usual  accuracy  and  care,  as  the  hearers  are  never  in 
so  critical  a  mood  as  then ;  thirdly,  that  it  have  an  air  of  modesty,  which  in  the 
beginning  of  a  discourse  is  especially  prepossessing;  fourthly,  that  it  should  be 
calm  and  moderate,  the  audience  being  not  yet  prepared  for  anything  strong 
and  vehement;  fifthly,  that  it  should  not  anticipate  any  of  the  main  points  of 
the  discourse,  and  thus  deprive  them  of  the  advantage  of  novelty,  when  they  are 
brought  forward  for  consideration. 

2.  The  Statement.  —  When  by  a  good  introduction  a  speaker  has 
done  what  he  can  to  gain  for  himself  and  his  subject  a  favorable 
hearing,  his  next  business  is  to'  state  the  subject  of  his  discourse. 
The  only  rule  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  this  is  that  the  subject 
should  be  stated  in  few  and  simple  words,  and  with  the  utmost  pos- 
sible clearness. 

3.  The  Main  Discourse.  —  Writers  on  rhetoric  have  made  here 
many  subdivisions,  such  as  the  explication  or  narration,  the  divi- 
sion, the  argumentative  part,  and  the  pathetic  part,  and  under  each 


PROSE    COMPOSITION— DISCOURSES.         305 

of  these  they  have  laid  down  almost  numberless  rules.  But  the 
utility  of  such  rules  and  divisions  is  very  much  doubted.  Each  man 
must  of  necessity  be  left  to  his  own  judgment  and  powers  of  inven- 
tion as  to  the  best  manner  of  constructing  the  body  of  his  discourse. 
No  two  topics  ordinarily  are  to  be  handled  precisely  alike ;  no  two 
writers  handle  the  same  topic  exactly  in  the  same  way ;  no  writer 
himself  handles  a  topic  in  the  same  way  under  different  circum- 
stances. 

4.  The  Conclusion.  —  The  Conclusion  or  Peroration  of  a  discourse, 
like  the  Introduction,  requires  special  care.  The  object  in  the  con- 
clusion is  to  leave  as  strong  an  impression  as  possible  upon  the 
minds  of  the  audience. 

How  Done.  —  Sometimes  this  is  done  by  reserving  to  the  last  the 
strongest  part  or  head  of  the  discourse  and  ending  with  it.  Some- 
times the  speaker  gives  a  brief  and  striking  summary  of  the  whole 
discourse.  The  main  thing  to  be  observed  is  to  hit  upon  the  pre- 
cise time  for  bringing  the  discourse  to  a  point.  If  this  is  done  too 
abruptly,  it  leaves  the  hearers  expectant  and  dissatisfied.  If,  when 
the  discourse  seems  ended  and  the  hearers  are  looking  for  the  close, 
the  speaker  continues  turning  round  and  round  the  point,  without 
coming  to  a  pause,  the  audience  become  restless  and  tired.  There 
are  indeed  very  few  speakers  that  know  how  or  when  to  stop. 
26*  U 


Part  II 


INVENTION. 

In  the  Introduction  to  the  present  Treatise,  it  was  remarked  that 
Bhetoric,  or  the  Art  of  Discourse,  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
parts,  Invention  and  Style.  Logically,  Invention  would  seem  to 
come  first,  and  Style  afterwards.  For  practical  convenience,  how- 
ever, this  arrangement  has  been  reversed,  and  Style  has  been  treated 
of  first. 


Invention,  as  used  in  Rhetoric,  means  finding  out  what  to 
say. 

Invention  is  divided  into  two  branches:  1.  Storing  the 
mind  with  knowledge;  2.  Selecting  from  this  general  store- 
house the  thoughts  needed  for  any  particular  occasion. 

Storing  the  Mind.  —  The  first  of  these  belongs  to  education  and 
general  intellectual  culture,  rather  than  to  Rhetoric.  If  one  is  to 
write  on  any  given  subject,  he  can,  of  course,  know  better  what  to 
say,  if  he  is  a  man  of  profound  and  varied  knowledge. 

Mistake  of  the  Older  Writers.  —  Hence,  some  of  the  ancient  writers  on 
this  subject  included  under  Rhetoric  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences.  But  this 
is  to  mistake  entirely  the  nature  and  design  of  Rhetoric.  In  order  to  the 
practice  of  this  art  we  need,  indeed,  varied  knowledge,  just  as  we  need  boards 
and  beams  and  other  materials  in  order  to  practise  the  art  of  carpentry.  It  is 
not  a  part  of  the  art  of  carpentry,  however,  to  create  these  materials ;  but,  the 
materials  being  already  in  existence  and  in  possession,  carpentry,  having  to 
make  some  particular  structure,  finds  out  which  of  these  materials  will  be 
needed  for  (lie  occasion. 

306 


INVENTION.  307 

The  Office  of  Invention.  —  Somewhat  similar  to  this  Is  the  office  of  Inven- 
tion in  rhetoric.  When  one  undertakes  to  discourse  on  any  particular  point,  he 
must  hunt  up  thoughts  in  regard  to  it ;  and  these  he  will  find,  partly  in  his 
already  acquired  knowledge,  and  partly  by  special  study  for  the  occasion  ;  and 
the  more  comprehensive  is  his  general  knowledge  and  education,  the  less  of  this 
special  study  will  he  have  to  make  when  finding  materials  for  discourse. 

Comparative  Importance.  —  Invention  is,  from  the  necessity  of  the 
case,  of  more  importance  than  Style.  It  is  more  important  surely 
to  have  something  of  substantial  interest  and  value  to  say,  than  to 
be  able  to  trick  out  vapid  nothings  in  forms  of  grace  and  elegance. 

Difficulty.— As  invention  is  the  more  important  of  the  two,  so  it  is  incom- 
parably the  more  difficult.  Indeed,  as  to  its  principal  functions,  it  is  not  in  the 
power  of  mere  rhetoric  to  supply  what  is  needed.  Invention,  except  in  its 
lowest  and  most  mechanical  details,  is  not  a  thing  to  be  taught.  It  is  a  part  of 
one's  native  endowment,  and  of  his  general  intellectual  accumulations.  To 
gather  and  muster  the  materials  for  an  essay,  as  Macaulay  would  have  done, 
one  needs  Macaulay's  genius  and  Macaulay's  learning.  No  amount  or  inge- 
nuity of  pumping  will  draw  water  from  a  well  that  is  dry. 

The  Great  Desideratum.  —  So  far  as  human  efforts  are  concerned, 
the  first  and  great  thing  that  is  needed,  in  order  to  be  able  to  pro- 
duce thoughts  which  shall  be  valuable  and  interesting,  is  to  acquire 
extensive  knowledge  and  thorough  mental  discipline,  and  this  is  to 
be  accomplished,  as  already  said,  by  general  education  and  study, 
not  by  the  application  of  rhetorical  rules. 

A  Help.  —  While  freely  conceding  this  point,  I  yet  think  it  is  in 
the  power  of  the  rhetorical  art  to  help  considerably  the  beginner  in 
the  use  of  such  materials  as  he  has.  To  furnish  some  such  help  is 
the  object  of  the  chapters  which  follow. 

Ancient  Mode.  —  The  ancient  writers  on  rhetoric,  and  some  of 
recent  date,  have  given  a  great  variety  of  technical  rules,  some  of 
them  exceedingly  formal  and  elaborate,  for  conducting  these  pro- 
cesses of  invention. 

Mode  here  Adopted.  —  Instead  of  producing  such  a  learned  array 
of  barren  formulas,  which,  at  the  best,  are  only  perplexing  to  the 
beginner  in  the  art  of  composition,  as  they  are  useless  to  the  expert, 
the  plan  here  adopted  is  to  give  a  series  of  practical  examples,  in 
illustration  of  the  actual  process  of  invention,  beginning  with  such 
as  are  extremely  simple,  and  proceeding  gradually  to  such  as  are 
more  difficult. 


CHAPTER  I. 

COMPOSITIONS  ON  OBJECTS. 

To  the  Teacher. —  1.  The  examples  given  in  the  first  few  pages  are  for  begin- 
ners. If  your  class  is  already  somewhat  proficient  in  composition  and  in  gen- 
eral knowledge,  it  will  be  well  to  skip  the  first  chapter  or  two,  and  begin  farther 
on  in  the  book,  where  the  exercises  are  less  simple. 

2.  Beginners  in  composition  should  not  be  allowed  to  write  on  abstract  sub- 
jects, such  as  Happiness,  Hypocrisy,  Intemperance,  Procrastination,  and  the 
like,  but  on  some  concrete,  visible  object,  with  which  they  are  familiar. 

3.  In  assigning  subjects  to  a  class,  it  is  well  at  first  to  help  them  in  making 
an  outline  of  the  things  to  be  said  about  it.  After  this  has  been  done  for  them 
a  few  times,  they  will  have  no  difficulty  in  doing  it  for  themselves,  and  finally 
in  writing  out  their  ideas  at  once,  without  making  the  preliminary  outline. 

4.  Try  to  possess  your  pupils  from  the  first  with  the  idea  that  what  they  have 
to  do  is  simply  to  express  in  words  what  they  know,  or  what  they  think,  about 
the  subject  proposed. 

5.  At  first,  aim  only  at  copiousness,  correcting  no  faults  except  those  in  gram- 
mar and  punctuation,  and  encouraging  pupils  to  write  freely  whatever  thoughts 
occur  about  the  subject,  and  in  whatever  order  they  occur. 

6.  When  the  class  begin  to  write  freely,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  filling  a  page 
or  two  with  their  loose  remarks,  then  begin  to  criticise  and  correct.* 

7.  In  making  these  corrections,  proceed  with  only  one  class  of  faults  at  a  fime, 
and  correct  no  fault  except  this,  until  the  pupils  have  become  pretty  familiar 
with  it.    Then  take  some  other  fault  or  excellence,  and  proceed  in  like  manner. 

8.  After  a  class  can  write  with  facility  and  general  correctness,  then  begin  to 
experiment  upon  the  use  of  figures  and  other  graces  of  style. 

Example.  —  Subject,  Paper. 

To  the  Teacher.—  In  assigning  a  subject  like  this  to  a  class  of  young  schol- 
ars, the  teacher  should  direct  their  attention  to  the  various  points  in  regard  to  it, 
about  which  they  will  be  likely  to  have  some  idea.  In  this  way  a  preliminary 
Outline  of  the  subject  may  be  formed.    Thus : 

Outline. 

1.  General  appearance  of  paper. 

2.  Its  color. 


*  For  methods  of  correction,  see  page  347. 


COMPOSITIONS    ON   OBJECTS.  309 

3.  Some  of  the  forms  in  which  it  comes. 

4.  Materials  of  which  it  is  usually  made. 

5.  Some  of  its  uses. 

6.  Ways  in  which  it  may  be  destroyed,  or  unfitted  for  use. 

Composition. 

1.  The  general  appearance  of  paper  is  that  of  a  thin,  light  sheet, 
With  a  smooth  and  uniform  surface. 

2.  Its  color  is  various.  Sometimes  it  is  white,  sometimes  pink, 
sometimes  it  has  a  bluish  tinge,  sometimes  it  is  mottled.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  of  any  color,  but  most  commonly  it  is  white. 

3.  Paper  usually  comes  in  sheets,  and  these  sheets  are  of  various 
sizes,  such  as  note-paper,  letter-paper,  and  foolscap.  These  sheets 
are  put  up  in  small  packages  called  quires,  and  the  quires  are  put 
into  larger  packages  called  reams.  Twenty-four  sheets  make  a 
quire,  and  twenty  quires  make  a  ream. 

4.  Paper  is  usually  made  of  old  rags,  but  I  believe  it  may  be  made 
of  many  other  things,  such  as  straw  and  bark ;  but  I  never  saw  a 
paper-mill,  and,  therefore,  I  cannot  say  certainly.  Linen  rags  are 
said  to  be  better  than  cotton  rags  for  making  paper.  Men  often  go 
round  from  house  to  house  to  buy  old  rags,  which  they  sell  to  the 
paper-makers.  These  rag-men  never  buy  woollen  rags  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  and  if  the  linen  rags  are  sorted  out  and  kept  by  themselves, 
they  will  bring  a  higher  price  than  other  rags.  My  mother  lets  me 
have  all  the  rags  in  our  house,  and  I  keep  them  put  away  in  a  bag, 
and  the  money  for  which  they  are  sold  is  mine  to  spend  or  to  put 
into  the  missionary-box. 

5.  Paper  is  used  chiefly  for  writing  and  for  printing.  Composi- 
tions are  written  on  paper.  Newspapers  and  books  are  printed  on 
paper.  Bank-bills  are  made  of  paper.  Paper  is  used  for  making 
boxes  and  for  covering  walls.  Boys1  kites  are  made  of  paper;  so 
are  men's  collars  sometimes. 

6.  Paper  is  very  easily  destroyed  by  fire.  It  burns  sooner  than 
almost  anything  else.  Water  also  injures  it  badly.  It  is  not  tough 
like  leather,  but  is  easily  torn.  Paper  is  damaged  by  being  rumpled. 
If  you  want  your  composition  or  your  letter  to  look  nice,  you  must 
take  good  care  of  your  paper,  and  keep  it  smooth  and  clean.  I 
keep  my  paper  in  a  portfolio  which  my  father  gave  me  for  a  Christ- 
mas present. 


310  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

To  the  Teacher.  — In  the  imaginary  composition  given  above,  the  para- 
graphs are  for  convenience  numbered  to  correspond  to  the  numbers  in  the 
outline. 

Perhaps,  in  the  first  few  compositions  which  a  class  may  write,  it  may  be  well 
for  them  in  like  manner  to  number  the  topics  and  paragraphs.  After  a  while, 
however,  the  practice  should  be  discontinued. 

The  plan  here  adopted,  of  first  making  an  outline  of  topics,  and  then  writing 
something  upon  each  topic,  has  the  important  incidental  advantage  of  teaching 
beginners  the  difficult  art  of  paragraphing  correctly.  What  is  written  under 
each  head  or  topic  naturally  forms  a  paragraph  by  itself,  and  thus  the  pupils 
easily  fall  into  the  way  of  dividing  their  matter  into  paragraphs  according  to  the 
natural  divisions  of  the  subject. 

Beginners  should  be  encouraged,  not  merely  to  state  facts  on  the  subjects  of 
which  they  write,  but  to  mix  up  their  own  notions  and  feelings  about  these  facts, 
as  the  writer  of  the  foregoing  composition  has  done  at  the  close  of  his  fourth  and 
sixth  paragraphs. 

Example.—  Subject,  Water. 
Outline. 

1.  Differences  between  water  and  wood. 

2.  Differences  between  water  and  air. 

3.  Effect  of  extreme  cold  upon  water. 

4.  Effect  of  extreme  heat  upon  water. 

5.  Different  kinds  of  water. 

6.  Benefits  of  water. 

Note.— The  teacher  should  prepare  similar  suggestive  outlines  on  each  sub- 
ject assigned  until  the  class  become  familiar  with  the  method,  and  begin  to 
show  signs  of  being  able  to  make  their  own  outlines.  When  they  thus  begin  to 
make  outlines  for  themselves,  the  teacher  will  for  a  while  find  it  necessary  to 
supplement  their  attempts  by  suggestions  of  his  own,  to  be  added  to  theirs.  He 
must  exercise  his  discretion  as  to  how  long  this  help  should  be  continued,  and 
when  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  make  the  entire  outline  without  help. 

The  preparation  of  this  outline  is  of  the  very  essence  of  invention.  It  sets  the 
pupil  at  once  to  thinking  — to  gathering  thoughts,  instead  of  putting  together 
mere  words.  The  outline,  therefore,  should  be  a  leading  portion  of  the  exercise 
for  a  long  time,  and  should  in  each  case  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  for  inspec- 
tion and  comment,  before  the  composition  is  written. 

Additional  Subjects. 


Fire, 

Air, 

Wood, 

Iron, 

Leather, 

Chalk, 

Grass, 

Houses, 

Dogs, 

Bricks, 

Skates, 

Dolls, 

Flowers, 

Fruits, 

Penknives. 

COMPOSITIONS    ON    OBJECTS.  311 

Note  1.  — Children  should  continue  for  some  time  to  write  on  subjects  like 
these  —  natural  objects  with  which  they  are  daily  familiar.  In  writing  upon 
those  topics,  however,  they  should  be  continually  stimulated  to  do  something 
more  than  merely  give  a  dry,  semi-scientific  enumeration  of  the  qualities  and 
properties  of  the  object  described.  Let  them,  on  the  contrary,  freely  mix  up 
their  own  personality  in  the  matter,  telling  what  particular  kind  of  dolls,  or 
skates,  or  dogs  they  like,  who  was  burned  by  the  fire,  who  fell  into  the  water, 
and  so  on.  Children  will  find  no  difficulty  in  having  something  to  write,  when 
once  they  have  made  the  discovery  that  writing  compositions  is  merely  putting 
upon  paper  their  knowledge  of  such  things  as  they  are  acquainted  with,  and 
telling  what  they  think  about  them. 

Note  2.—  No  rule  can  be  given  for  the  length  of  time  which  children  should 
be  kept  upon  compositions  of  the  kind  already  illustrated.  It  depends  a  good 
deal  upon  the  age  at  which  the  pupil  begins  the  exercise.  If  scholars  begin  to 
write  compositions  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten,  they  may  be  kept  upon  such  themes 
for  a  year  or  two,  writing  as  often  as  once  or  twice  a  week.  Any  teacher  of  ordi- 
nary inventive  powers  can  supply  subjects.  If,  however,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  scholar  is  already  considerably  advanced  in  years  and  knowledge  before 
beginning  to  write  compositions,  two  or  three  examples  of  this  kind  may  be  suf- 
ficient, before  proceeding  to  those  more  difficult.  The  decision  of  this  point 
must,  in  each  case,  be  left  to  the  discretion  and  judgment  of  the  teacher. 

For  method  of  correcting  compositions,  see  page  347. 


CHAPTER  II. 
COMPOSITIONS   ON  TRANSACTIONS. 

Note.— The  examples  which  are  given  in  this  chapter,  while  still  occupied 
mainly  with  the  concrete  and  the  visible,  rather  than  with  abstract  qualities  and 
relations,  yet  differ  clearly  from  those  in  Chapter  I.  The  topics  in  the  first 
chapter  are  simply  objects.  Those  now  to  be  given  involve  what  may  be  called 
transactions. 

Example,— Subject,  On  Going  to  School. 

Outline. 

1.  The  object  of  going  to  school. 

2.  The  age  for  going  to  school. 

3.  Behavior  at  school. 

4.  Behavior  on  the  road  to  and  from  school. 

5.  Difference  between  a  school  and  a  religious  meeting. 

6.  The  usual  exercises  of  a  school. 

7.  School-time. 

Composition. 

1.  The  object  of  going  to  school  is  to  learn  those  things  which  will 
be  useful  to  us  when  we  are  grown  up.  One  who  goes  to  school, 
and  learns  to  read  well,  and  to  write  a  beautiful  hand,  and  knows  a 
great  many  things,  is  much  more  thought  of  than  one  who  cannot 
read  or  spell,  and  who  has  to  make  his  mark  instead  of  writing  his 
name.  An  ignorant  man,  who  never  went  to  school,  is  not  much 
thought  of. 

2.  The  proper  age  for  people  to  go  to  school  is  when  they  are 
young,  before  they  have  to  work  to  get  a  living.  Young  boys  and 
girls  are  not  strong  enough  to  do  much  worfc,  but  they  can  go  to 


COMPOSITIONS    ON   TRANSACTIONS.         313 

school  and  study  just  as  well  as  not,  for  they  have  nothing  else  to 
do.  If  they  play  truant,  and  manage  to  get  out  of  going  to  school, 
they  will  be  very  sorry  for  it  afterwards.  Some  children  go  to 
school  when  they  are  only  five  years  old,  but  I  think  that  is  rather 
too  young.  Six  or  seven  seems  to  me  a  good  age  to  begin.  Those 
who  are  to  be  doctors,  or  lawyers,  or  ministers,  or  something  of  that 
kind,  go  to  school  a  great  many  years.  They  go  first  to  the  common 
school,  then  to  the  High  School  or  the  Academy,  then  to  the  College 
and  the  Seminary,  and  they  do  not  stop  going  until  they  are  grown- 
up men.  But  most  persons  have  to  leave  school  when  they  get  to 
be  fourteen  or  fifteen.  I  expect  to  leave  school  before  I  am  sixteen. 
I  should  like  very  much  to  go  to  College. 

3.  It  is  not  very  easy  to  behave  well  in  school,  so  many  things 
happen  to  make  one  laugh  and  to  forget  all  about  the  rules.  The 
hardest  thing  of  all  is  to  keep  from  whispering.  But  it  is  right  for 
the  teacher  to  forbid  it,  for  if  all  could  talk  as  much  as  they  pleased, 
there  would  not  be  much  study  done.  There  is  no  excuse  for  boys 
and  girls  playing  tricks  on  each  other  in  school,  and  watching  when 
the  teacher's  back  is  turned,  so  that  they  may  throw  spitballs  or  do 
something  to  make  the  other  scholars  laugh.  Such  behavior  is  with- 
out excuse.  If  scholars  would  behave  well  in  school,  they  would 
be  a  great  deal  happier,  for  they  would  enjoy  the  approbation  of 
their  teachers,  they  would  learn  much  more,  and  they  would  not  be 
kept  in  so  often,  or  be  punished  so  often. 

4.  Misbehavior  on  the  rbad  to  and  from  school  always  looks  bad. 
It  gives  people  a  bad  opinion  of  the  school,  and  also  of  the  families 
to  which  the  scholars  belong.  It  looks  as  if  the  scholars  were  very 
ill-bred,  and  did  not  know  what  good  manners  are.  Besides,  when 
the  school  breaks  up,  it  makes  a  large  crowd  in  the  street,  and  if 
the  scholars  are  rude  and  unmannerly,  they  incommode  people  who 
are  going  by.  It  is  wrong  for  the  scholars,  while  going  home  from 
school,  to  throw  stones  or  snowballs,  or  anything  of  that  kind,  in 
the  street,  for  they  often  break  people's  windows,  or  hit  ladies  and 
gentlemen  who  are  passing. 

5.  I  know  that  a  school  is  very  different  from  a  religious  meeting 
or  a  church,  but  I  do  not  know  that  I  can  explain  the  difference  very 
clearly.  In  the  church  that  I  go  to,  one  man  preaches  or  prays  or 
exhorts,  and  all  the  rest  sit  still  and  listen.  But  in  school,  we  are 
divided  into  classes,  and  we  all  read  and  recite  in  turn.  It  is  a 
great  deal  stiller  in  church  that  it  is  in  school,  but  I  suppose  school 

27 


314  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

would  be  a  good  deal  better  if  we  were  quieter  than  we  are.  Boys 
and  girls  never  think  of  playing  such  pranks  in  church  as  they  do 
in  school.     It  would  be  awful. 

6.  The  exercises  in  our  school  are  reading,  spelling,  writing,  study- 
ing, and  reciting  our  different  lessons.  Sometimes  we  sing.  Some- 
times we  choose  sides  in  spelling,  and  see  which  can  beat.  Com- 
position is  another  exercise.     Also  we  have  speaking  once  a  week. 

7.  School-time  in  most  schools  is  from  9  o'clock  to  12  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  from  2  o'clock  to  4  in  the  afternoon.  There  is  a  recess  in 
the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  and  no  school  at  all  on  Saturday,  or  in 
Christmas  week,  or  on  Washington's  birthday,  or  the  4th  of  July. 
Then  we  have  a  week's  vacation  in  spring,  and  a  long  vacation  in 
summer.  Scholars  are  always  impatient  for  vacation  to  come,  but 
generally  get  tired  of  it  before  it  is  over. 

Example.—  Subject,  On  Travelling. 
Outline. 

1.  Different  modes  of  travelling. 

2.  Things  to  be  gained  by  travelling. 

3.  Mishaps  and  dangers  to  be  encountered  in  travelling. 

4.  Some  of  the  places  and  people  that  I  would  like  to  visit. 

5.  Books  of  travel  which  I  have  read,  and  the  countries, 
etc.,  described  in  them.  # 

Other  Subjects. 

1.  The  Study  of  Geography. 

2.  The  Study  of  History. 

3.  Cultivating  Flowers. 

4.  Obedience  to  Parents. 

5.  Giving  Way  to  Anger. 

6.  Early  Rising. 

7.  Treatment  of  Animals. 

8.  Learning  to  Draw. 

9.  Attention  to  Dress. 
10.  Going  to  the  Circus. 

In  giving  additional  subjects  under  this  head,  the  teacher  should  limit  himself 
to  such  as  are  familiar  to  the  scholars,  and  involve  a  transaction  of  some  kind. 


CHAPTER    III. 

COMPOSITIONS    ON    ABSTRACT    SUBJECTS. 

After  a  sufficient  number  of  examples  have  been  given  of  themes  involving 
simply  objects,  as  in  Chapter  I.,  and  familiar  transactions,  as  in  Chapter  II.,  the 
scholar  should  begin  to  undertake  themes  involving  abstract  qualities,  though 
still  confining  himself  to  such  as  are  of  a  very  familiar  character.  Such  are  the 
following : 

Example.  —  Subject,  Fear. 

Outline. 

1.  A  Definition  of  fear. 

2.  Uses  of  fear. 

3.  Signs  of  fear. 

4.  Unreasonable  fears. 

5.  Keasonable  fears. 

Composition. 

1.  Fear  is  defined  to  be  "a  painful  emotion  excited  by  an  appre- 
hension of  impending  danger."  In  this  definition,  which  is  taken 
from  the  dictionary,  there  are  four  things  to  be  noticed.  First,  fear 
is  an  emotion  of  the  mind.  This  distinguishes  it  from  bodily  acts 
and  affections.  Secondly,  it  is  painful.  This  distinguishes  it  from 
many  other  mental  emotions,  such  as  joy  and  the  like.  Thirdly,  it 
is  excited  in  view  of  something  impending,  or  yet  to  come.  This 
distinguishes  it  from  remorse,  and  other  such  feelings,  which  refer 
to  what  is  past.  Fourthly,  it  is  excited  in  view  of  coming  danger. 
This  distinguishes  it  from  hope,  and  feelings  of  that  kind  which 
look  forward  to  coming  happiness.  The  definition,  therefore,  in- 
cludes a  great  deal,  although  it  is  short. 

315 


316  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

2.  Fear  has  many  uses.  It  makes  people  careful.  There  would 
be  a  great  many  more  crimes  than  there  now  are,  if  wicked  men 
were  not  afraid  of  the  consequences  of  wrong-doing.  Fear  of  being 
drowned  makes  boys  more  careful  about  going  into  the  water. 
Fear  of  bad  marks  or  of  other  kinds  of  punishment  sometimes  keeps 
scholars  from  misbehaving,  or  from  neglecting  their  lessons.  Horses 
and  dogs  and  other  animals  are  made  to  mind  through  fear  of  their 
master;  but  that  is  not  the  only  motive,  for  they  often  seem  to  do 
things  from  affection,  and  even  from  ambition  and  from  pride. 

3.  Though  fear  is  a  mental,  not  a  bodily  affection,  it  shows  itself 
by  bodily  signs.  When  a  horse  is  frightened,  he  often  trembles  all 
over,  but  generally  he  runs  away,  looking  wildly  out  of  his  eyes. 
When  a  dog  is  afraid,  he  hangs  his  head  and  sneaks  away,  with,  his 
tail  drooping  between  his  legs.  Almost  all  animals  crouch  and 
lower  their  heads  when  they  are  afraid.  In  men,  fear  shows  itself 
chiefly  in  their  loss  of  color.  A  man  who  is  very  much  terrified 
generally  becomes  ghastly  white.  I  have  seen  it  stated  that  the 
reason  of  this  is  that  the  blood  leaves  the  face  and  rushes  back 
toward  the  heart.  People  who  are  frightened  look  wild  out  of  the 
eyes  also,  just  as  horses  and  other  animals  do.  Another  common 
sign  of  fear,  both  with  animals  and  with  men,  is  that  it  leads  them 
to  cry  out,  scream,  roar,  or  make  some  other  frantic  noise. 

4.  Fear  is  unreasonable  when  it  is  without  any  good  cause,  or 
when  the  danger  apprehended  is  imaginary.  It  is  this  kind  of  fear 
which  leads  ignorant  people  to  be  afraid  of  the  dark,  or  of  witches 
and  ghosts.  Horses  often  get  frightened  at  imaginary  danger. 
They  see  a  leaf  stir  at  the  side  of  the  street,  and  they  seem  to  think 
it  is  some  monster  about  to  spring  upon  them,  and  off  they  jump  to 
the  other  side  of  the  street.  Horses  seem  more  easily  frightened 
than  any  other  animals  by  unreal  danger.  When  a  person  looks 
down  from  the  top  of  a  house  or  of  a  high  tower,  he  is  apt  to  be 
afraid,  even  though  there  is  a  strong  railing,  so  that  he  could  not 
fall  over  if  he  tried.  This  seems  to  be  an  unreasonable  fear,  and 
yet  almost  everybody  feels  it.  We  have  the  same  feeling  w\wn 
standing  on  the  platform  of  a  railroad  station,  as  the  engine  comes 
thundering  up.  We  know  we  are  beyond  its  reach,  and  yet  we  in- 
voluntarily shrink  back  from  the  monster. 

5.  Fear  is  reasonable  when  the  evil  apprehended  is  real,  and  is  of 
such  magnitude  that  it  is  likely  to  cause  us  great  distress.  If  a  man 
had  fallen  upon  the  railroad  track,  and  his  feet  had  caught  fast  in 


COMPOSITIONS    ON   ABSTRACT  SUBJECTS.     317 

the  timbers,  so  that  he  could  not  get  off,  and  he  should  see  the 
train  coming  at  full  speed,  he  would  be  horribly  afraid,  and  his  fear 
would  be  perfectly  reasonable.  If  a  man  had  murdered  another,  or 
had  committed  any  great  crime,  he  would  have  reason  to  be  afraid, 
because  the  hand  of  justice  may  at  any  time  overtake  him.  The 
Bible  says,  uBe  sure  your  sin  shall  find  you  out."  A  man  who 
commits  a  crime  is  like  a  man  who  is  entangled  on  a  railroad  track, 
and  he  knows  not  when  the  engine  will  come  rushing  along,  and 
overwhelm  him.  It  is  said  that  thieves  and  burglars,  though  some- 
times desperate,  are  great  cowards,  and,  indeed,  they  have  reason 
to  be.  There  is  one  fear  which  we  should  all  have,  and  that  is  the 
fear  of  God  our  Maker. 

Note. —  In  beginning  a  composition  on  a  subject  like  the  foregoing,  it  will 
often  be  found  convenient  to  begin  by  taking  a  definition  from  the  dictionary. 
It  is  not  necessary,  however,  always  to  begin  in  this  way.  The  teacher  should 
see  to  it  that  the  method  is  varied. 

Example,—  Subject,  Memory. 
Outline. 

1.  The  importance  of  being  able  to  remember  what  we  have 
seen  or  heard  of. 

2.  How  far  back  the  writer  can  go  in  his  recollection  of 
things  which  happened  to  himself. 

3.  Instances  of  very  great  memory  which  we  have  known 
or  read  of. 

4.  Methods  of  improving  the  memory. 

5.  Danger  of  overtaxing  the  memory. 

6.  Indications  of  memory  in  animals. 

Other  Subjects. 

Friendship,  Improvement  of  Time, 

Hatred,  Advantages  of  a  Good  Education, 

Perseverance,  A  Habit  of  Procrastination, 

Industry,  The  Danger  of  Bad  Company, 

Ambition,  The  Use  of  Profane  Language. 

Note. —Subjects  like  these  are  very  common,  and  may  be  multiplied  in- 
definitely at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 
27* 


CHAPTER  IV. 
COMPOSITIONS  ON  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS. 

To  Teachers.  —  Exercises  like  those  already  given,  if  persistently  followed 
up,  can  hardly  fail  to  beget  in  the  pupil  some  readiness  of  invention,  as  well  as 
some  facility  of  expression.  But  there  is  danger,  if  the  plan  is  followed  ex- 
clusively, of  its  leading  to  a  sort  of  mechanical  and  monotonous  formalism. 
Something  is  needed,  therefore,  to  stir  the  imagination,  which  in  the  young  is 
almost  always  capable  of  great  activity,  if  properly  appealed  to.  The  best  method 
of  awakening  this  faculty  is  to  assign  unreal  subjects,  in  which  the  scholar  has 
no  resource  but  simply  to  make  up  something  out  of  his  own  head.  Teachers 
who  have  never  tried  this  plan  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  inventive  the  young 
mind  naturally  is.  Such  a  plan  is  only  employing,  in  the  exercise  of  com- 
position, the  dramatic  and  creative  talent  which  almost  all  children  show  in 
their  sports. 

Examples  of  this  sort  of  compositions  are  given  here,  for  practical  convenience 
in  exhibiting  those  of  the  same  kind  together.  But  in  actual  teaching,  it  is  better 
to  use  exercises  of  this  kind  interchangeably  with  those  described  in  Chapters 
I.,  II.,  and  III.  The  teacher  may  begin  to  assign  subjects  of  the  kind  now  under 
consideration  as  soon  as  the  scholar  has  written  two  6r  three  compositions  like 
those  in  Chapter  I.,  and  so  the  practice  may  be  continued  as  an  occasional  varia- 
tion all  through  the  exercises  in  the  first  three  chapters.  Indeed,  the  practice 
is  a  good  one  at  every  stage  of  the  process  of  learning  to  compose,  though  most 
valuable  in  the  early  stages. 

In  assigning  these  imaginary  subjects,  no  preliminary  outline  is  needed.  None, 
indeed,  is  possible.  An  outline  is  based  upon  logical  considerations,  whereas 
here  there  is  no  basis  of  logic  to  build  upon,  but  the  whole  thing  is  left  design- 
edly to  the  caprice  of  the  imagination,  working  according  to  "  its  own  sweet 
will." 

Instead  of  making  up  examples  under  this  head,  I  give  some  which  were 
actually  written  as  school  exercises,  and  without  any  expectation  on  the  part  of 
the  writers  that  the  exercises  would  ever  appear  in  print.  They  are  given  with 
all  their  imperfections,  as  thereby  showing  better  the  real  character  of  the  exer- 
cise. Some  of  them,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  are  from  extremely  juvenile 
authors. 

318 


COMPOSITIONS   ON  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.    319 

Examples.  —  Subject,  The  Man  in' the  Moon. 

1.  By  a  Miss  of  Ten. 
I  do  not  know  from  whence  this  phrase  originated.  It  is  certainly- 
false,  for  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  man  in  the  moon.  But  I  know 
by  my  own  experience,  that  the  longer  you  look  at  the  moon,  the 
plainer  you  can  see  the  face.  This  is  all  imagination.  The  dark 
places  that  we  see,  are  caused  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun  shining 
on  the  mountains.  The  sailors  think  there  is  a  man  in  the  moon, 
for  they  have  been  to  sea  [see].  Some  old  bachelors  say,  that  the 
reason  why  the  girls  look  so  much  at  the  moon,  is  because  there  is 
a  man  in  it.  I  do  not  know  anything  more  about  this  subject  than 
"the  man  in  the  moon." 

2.  By  a  Miss  of  Thirteen. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  scientific  observation  that  the  moon  is 
uninhabited,  by  reason  of  its  being  so  hot  as  to  be  unable  to  sup- 
port life.  A  man  with  salamandrine  qualities  might  possibly  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  lunar  realms,  and  only  a  man  with  such  qualities 
can  we  suppose  the  man  in  the  moon  to  be ;  but,  oh !  what  a  stretch 
our  imagination  has  to  take  to  imagine  such  a  marvellous  thing. 

The  man  with  whom  I  have  formed  an  acquaintance  came  into 
existence  about  a  century  after  the  Creation.  Jove,  finding  that  if 
the  moon  had  not  something  to  temper  its  light  to  mortal  eyes,  it 
would  so  dazzle  as  to  blind  us,  placed  his  deformed  child  Vulcan  in 
the  subterranean  vaults  of  Mount  Etna,  there  to  manufacture  a  shield 
to  protect  us  from  its  brilliancy. 

Vulcan,  being  very  ingenious,  first  constructed  a  woman,  but  find- 
ing she  had  so  great  a  propensity  for  running  after  the  sun  that  she 
was  never  in  her  place,  he  threw  her  into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius, 
and  then  set  about  constructing  something  more  enduring.  He 
wished  to  make  something  just  the  opposite  of  woman,  and  his 
mind  immediately  settled  on  a  man  as  her  antipodes.  So  he  sent 
his  workmen  to  Stromboli  while  it  was  in  a  state  of  eruption,  to 
collect  the  burning  lava ;  and  having  brought  it  to  Etna,  he  moulded 
it  with  his  own  hands  into  the  shape  of  a  man.  Vulcan  then  cooled 
it,  and,  when  sufficiently  cold,  carried  it  to  the  court  of  Jove  for  his 
inspection. 

Jove  was  delighted  with  it,  and  wishing  to  confer  as  great  an 
honor  as  possible  on  Vulcan,  he  breathed  into  the  nostrils  of  the 


320  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

lava  man,  this  being  the  greatest  honor  that  could  be  bestowed. 
Vulcan  then  carried  it  back  to  Etna,  and  having  heated  it  to  the 
highest  pitch,  transported  it  up  to  the  moon,  where,  instead  of 
placing  it  directly  in  the  interior,  he  suspended  it  by  a  cord  from 
the  throne  of  Jove  at  the  back  of  it.  He  then  inclined  the  man  so 
that  his  nose,  mouth,  and  eyes  projected  from  the  outside  of  the 
moon,  thus  tempering  the  light,  and  making  it  more  pleasant  to  our 
eyes. 

This  is  the  origin  of  the  man  in  the  moon. 

The  features  of  the  man  projecting  have  given  rise  to  the  story 
of  the  mountains  in  the  moon. 


3.  By  a  Miss  of  Fifteen. 

From  early  childhood  I  have  always  entertained  the  most  pro- 
found respect  for  this  personage,  and  presume  I  ever  shall,  for 
reasons  some  of  which  will  be  stated  in  my  brief  account  of  him. 

Even  the  mention  of  his  name,  unequalled  in  the  annals  of  time 
for  simplicity,  fills  one  with  admiration  and  awe.  He  bears  no  sur- 
name, and  his  family  name  is  unknown.  This  was  lost  by  a  fatal 
accident.  A  comet  went  whirling  around  the  moon  once,  and  by 
its  extreme  velocity  ignited  the  parchments  containing  the  record 
of  this  illustrious  family :  thus  was  lost  to  succeeding  generations 
one  of  the  brightest  names  that  ever  illuminated  the  solar  system. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  he  declined  even  the  noted  names  of  the 
Grecian  gods,  and  scornfully  rejected  the  honorable  ones  of  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Neptune,  Mars,  Mercury,  and  many  others,  but  sent  them 
to  the  planets  which  now  bear  these  names.  He  does  not  depend, 
however,  upon  such  trifling  coincidences  for  reputation. 

If  there  are  other  inhabitants  of  his  native  orb,  he  is  sufficiently 
renowned  to  be  universally  known  by  the  unostentatious  cognomen 
of  "  the  man,"  and  even  at  the  distance  of  two  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  miles,  the  simple  title  "  the  man  in  the  moon  "  is  proclaimed 
with  reverence  among  the  nations. 

Having  exhausted  my  knowledge  in  regard  to  my  hero's  name,  I 
will  proceed  to  describe  his  personal  appearance,  hoping  he  will  not 
be  lowered  in  my  hearers'  estimation  by  the  account. 

He  has  a  very  open  countenance,  but  lacks  expression,  and  if  one 
views  him  only  when  turned  full  face,  he  has  anything  but  an  ani- 
mated countenance. 


COMPOSITIONS   ON  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.    321 

But  I  can  evade  the  startling  fact  no  longer.  Although  his  fea- 
tures are  good,  he  is  either  all  head  and  face,  or  else  he  possesses 
the  other  attributes  of  the  human  frame  in  a  very  diminutive  form, 
that  is,  according  to  our  physiological  ideas;  but  undoubtedly  cor- 
rect principles  of  this  science  as  believed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Luna 
are  far  superior  to  our  own. 

Well,  we  will  naturally  speak  of  his  position  in  life  next.  He  has 
always  stood  very,  very  high  in  society;  even  the  greatest  kings 
and  queens  of  earth  have  been  obliged  to  look  up  to  him.  His  char- 
acter is  unsurpassable.  If  this  were  not  the  case  he  would  never 
have  retained  his  exalted  position. 

The  record  of  his  age  was  lost  at  the  same  time  that  his  name 
perished.  But  that  he  has  arrived  to  the  years  of  maturity,  you 
will  believe  when  I  inform  you  he  was  a  man  when  my  great-great- 
grandfather was  a  boy. 

Some  upstarts  have  made  faint  attempts  to  prove  his  existence 
false,  but  we  will  (thanks  to  our  early  education)  continue  to  cry, 
14  Long  live  the  man  in  the  moon." 


4.  By  a  Young  Lady  of  Eighteen. 

This  most  august  character,  who  occupies  so  conspicuous  a  posi- 
tion before  the  eyes  of  the  world,  is  unquestionably  the  most  an- 
cient personage  of  which  the  inhabitants  of  this  mundane  sphere 
have  any  knowledge.  The  poor  old  Wandering  Jew  should  not  be 
mentioned  in  the  same  day  with  him,  for  there  is  no  comparison 
between  their  ages.  Before  a  Jew  was  ever  seen  upon  the  earth, 
this  old  man  sat  enthroned  in  the  moon,  and  there  he  will  continue 
to  the  end  of  time.  He  certainly  holds  his  age  remarkably  well, 
for,  although  he  is  rather  gray,  his  eye  is  as  bright,  and  his  strength 
and  activity  are  as  great  as  when  he  first  took  possession  of  his 
exalted  position. 

The  "  man  "  is  very  fond  of  travelling,  and  is  easy  and  graceful 
in  all  his  movements,  as  all  will  affirm  who  have  ever  watched  him 
sailing  among  the  clouds  in  a  pleasant  evening.  The  moon  is  his  in- 
separable companion ;  he  carries  it  with  him  wherever  he  goes,  and 
takes  the  best  care  of  it.  Astronomers  tell  us  (and  they  should  know, 
for  they  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  in  observing  his  movements)  that 
he  carries  it  along  at  the  rate*of  54,000  miles  a  day.  He  always  takes 
the  same  route.     The  earth  seems  to  possess  some  peculiar  attrac- 

V 


322  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

tion  over  him,  and  he  spends  his  whole  time  in  travelling  round  and 
round  our  planet,  though  at  a  great  distance.  I  never  heard  of  his 
desiring  to  come  nearer  except  once,  which  I  will  tell  about  presently. 

As  to  his  family,  we  do  not  know  much.  I  rather  suspect  old 
Mother  Goose  is  one  of  his  near  relations,  for  she  seems  to  make 
frequent  excursions  in  that  direction,  and  is  the  only  one  who  is 
able  to  enlighten  us  much  concerning  his  habits.  If  that  old  "  cow  " 
she  tells  us  about,  who  once  jumped  over  the  moon,  could  only  find 
a  tongue,  no  doubt  we  might  receive  much  valuable  information 
from  her,  for  she  certainly  had  a  most  favorable  opportunity  of 
overlooking  his  movements. 

I  imagine  that  green  cheese  is  the  man's  chief  article  of  diet.  He 
seems  to  have  an  unlimited  supply  of  it,  and  it  has  the  remarkable 
property  of  the  widow's  cruse  of  oil.  It  never  grows  less.  I  sup- 
pose he  very  naturally  gets  tired  sometimes  eating  this  one  thing, 
and  wishes  for  a  greater  variety.  Mother  Goose  tells  us  a  short 
story  about  him,  which  I  think  favors  the  truth  of  this  supposition. 
It  seems  that  one  day  he  became  remarkably  hungry,  and  his  stom- 
ach craved  something  besides  green  cheese ;  so  he  formed  the  deter- 
mination to  come  down  to  the  abode  of  men,  and  get  something 
different.  Very  early  one  fine  morning,  having  so  arranged  matters 
that  the  moon  could  get  along  without  him  for  a  short  time,  he 
started,  and,  riding  upon  a  beam  of  light  at  his  usual  rate,  he  reached 
the  earth  in  about  four  days  and  a  half.  It  was  just  about  noon 
when  he  arrived,  and  after  a  little  difficulty  in  finding  Norwich, 
where  I  suppose  Mother  Goose  resided,  he  sat  down  with  her  to  a 
dinner  of  cold  bean-porridge.  Here  my  feelings  overcome  me.  The 
scene  which  followed  baffles  description.  Alas,  unfortunate  man, 
that  your  first  experience  here  should  be  so  bitter !  At  such  a  catas- 
trophe language  fails  us.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  while  busily  engaged 
in  passing  the  said  porridge  from  his  plate  to  the  cavity  in  the 
lower  part  of  his  face,  which  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
and  masticating  food,  he  suddenly  became  conscious  of  a  peculiar 
sensation  which  he  had  never  before  experienced ;  in  short,  he  burnt 
his  mouth.  After  this  sad  experience  he  returned  to  his  old  quarters 
in  the  moon,  and  I  have  never  heard  that  he  has  since  felt  any  in- 
clination to  repeat  his  visit.  This  anecdote  shows  us  very  conclu- 
sively that  he  must  enjoy  a  very  cool  temperature  generally,  and 
from  this  we  may  draw  the  inference,  as  a  sort  of  corollary,  that 
we  never  can  receive  any  heat  from  the  moon. 


COMPOSITIONS   ON  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.    323 

I  never  knew  until  last  evening  that  the  man  was  ever  troubled 
with  modesty.  I  know  of  a  number  of  young  ladies,  who,  talking 
about  him,  were  very  anxious  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  his  face,  but 
he  persistently  hid  himself  behind  a  cloud.  This  morning,  how- 
ever, he  dragged  me  out  of  bed  long  before  I  had  the  slightest  in- 
clination to  leave  the  pleasant  land  of  Nod. 

His  principal  occupation  at  present  seems  to  consist  in  taking  a 
general  oversight  of  the  earth,  and  keeping  its  waters  in  a  continual 
state  of  agitation. 

Sometimes  he  exerts  a  mysterious  influence  over  poor  mortals, 
which  frequently  produces  very  queer  effects.  Occasionally  we 
hear  of  a  poor  young  couple  being  suddenly  moonstruck  while  inno- 
cently enjoying  an  evening  walk  together.  This  is  not  generally  so 
immediately  fatal  as  sunstroke,  but  frequently  it  causes  the  unfor- 
tunate victims  to  wish  they  were  dead,  and  their  lives  seldom  run 
smoothly  afterward.  I  would  advise  all  young  people  to  beware  of 
"  the  man  in  the  moon." 


Example.—  Subject,  Columbus. 

The  following  composition  was  written  by  a  boy  of  nine.  It  is  given  merely 
to  show  the  facility  for  invention  which  children  very  early  sometimes  exhibit. 
The  boy  was  told  not  to  put  into  the  composition  anything  he  had  read  about 
Columbus,  but  to  make  it  all  up  out  of  his  own  head.   . 

By  a  Boy  of  Nine. 
Columbus  started  from  England  to  discover  America.  He  was 
the  happy  owner  of  a  small  row-boat,  and  had  two  hoop-poles  for 
propellers.  He  took  with  him  a  loaf  of  bread,  a  clam-basket,  and 
an  old  ham-bone,  also  his  brother  Nicodemus.  His  brother  had  a 
hat  that  measured  five  miles  around  the  brim.  He  took  with  him 
for  society  a  pig,  a  cat,  and  a  rat ;  for  fear  they  would  quarrel,  he 
placed  the  rat  in  a  sugar-bowl,  the  cat  in  a  salt-box,  and  the  pig 
in  the  cabin.  Columbus's  watch  was  immense ;  the  hour-hand  was 
fifty  feet  long.  One  day  the  pig  took  a  walk  on  the  deck,  and  got 
dizzy  and  fell  overboard,  and  was  drowned.  He  was  2  years,  3 
months,  4  weeks,  5  days,  6  hours,  30  minutes,  and  50  seconds  old 
at  the  time  he  died.  Soon  afterward,  Columbus  discovered  the 
Guanahani  or  Cat  Island,  so  named  on  account  of  the  tremendous 
number  of  cats  peopling  the  island. 


324  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Other  Subjects. 

1.  A  Letter  from  Old  Mother  Hubbard  concerning  her  Dog. 

2.  A  True  and  Reliable  History  of  Jack  Horner. 

3.  The  Early  History  of  the  Fly  that  was  Invited  into  the 
Parlor. 

4.  A  Day  with  a  Mermaid  Under  the  Sea. 

5.  The  Explorations  of  a  Shark  in  the  Wreck  of  an  East 
Indiaman. 

6.  A  Tour  on  the  Flying  Dutchman. 

7.  An  Involuntary  Descent  into  a  Volcano. 

8.  Our  First  Wo  man -President. 

9.  The  Chinaman's  First  Impressions  of  an  Italian  Opera. 

10.  Young  America  Transported  back  One  Hundred  Years. 

11.  When  My  Ship  Comes  in. 

12.  Why? 

13.  Among  the  Tigers. 

14.  Captured  by  a  Crocodile. 

15.  Moonlight  Revery. 

16.  Whispers  from  the  Pines. 

17.  What  I  Saw  in  a  Dream. 

18.  My  Opposite  Neighbor. 

19.  Wrecked  on  an  Iceberg. 

20.  Set  Adrift  in  Mid-Ocean. 

21.  A  Sojourn  on  a  Desert  Isle. 

22.  The  Man  who  Never  Forgot. 

23.  Prove  that  the  Moon  is  not  made  of  Green  Cheese. 

24.  Letter  to  the  Man  in  the  Moon. 

25.  Description  of  a  Journey  in  a  Balloon. 

26.  A  Visit  to  the  Mermaids  in  their  Coral  Groves. 

27.  What  I  Heard  and  Saw  when  I  used  my  Invisible  Ring. 

28.  A  Day  with  Adam  and  Eve  in  Eden. 

29.  A  Description  of  the  First  Day  after  Adam  and  Eve 
left  Eden. 

30.  The  Good  Fairy,  and  what  She  Did. 

31.  The  Bad  Fairy,  and  what  He  Did. 


COMPOSITIONS   ON  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.     325 

32.  What  would  have  Happened,  if  Columbus  had  not 
Discovered  America? 

33.  What  would  have  been  the  Condition  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  if  America  had  not  been  Discovered  ? 

34.  Do  Circumstances  make  Great  Men,  or  do  Great  Men 
make  Circumstances? 

35.  Would  it  be  an  Advantage  or  a  Disadvantage,  if  the 
Philosopher's  Stone  should  be  Discovered  ? 

36.  What  would  be  the  Result,  if  the  Nations  were  sud- 
denly to  find  themselves  Speaking  and  Reading  but  One 
Language  ? 

37.  A  Year  of  Total  Darkness. 

38.  A  Year  which  should  be  All  Day. 

39.  One  Man's  Life  Prolonged  to  an  Unusual  Length,  say 
500  or  1000  Years. 

40.  Man  Endowed  with  the  Power  of  Flight. 

41.  One  Man  in  the  Possession  of  the  Fountain  of  Per- 
petual Youth. 

28 


CHAPTER  V. 

PERSONAL   NARRATIVES. 

Another  class  of  exercises,  well  suited  to  develop  invention,  as  well  as  to 
break  up  the  stiff  formality  to  which  beginners  are  liable,  is  that  of  Personal 
Narratives.  These  narratives  may  either  be  real,  giving  an  account  of  some- 
thing which  the  writer  has  experienced,  such  as  an  excursion,  a  trip  into  the 
country,  and  the  like ;  or  they  may  be  fictitious,  giving  an  account  of  some  im- 
aginary adventure.  These  narratives,  whether  real  or  fictitious,  should  be  in 
the  first  person,  and  the  writers  should  be  encouraged  to  give  the  narrative, 
when  practicable,  something  of  the  dramatic  form,  introducing  dialogue,  telling 
what  was  said  by  the  several  parties  introduced.  Some  examples  will  be  given 
as  the  best  way  of  illustrating  what  is  meant.  They  are  from  writers  of  various 
degrees  of  maturity. 

Examples.— Subject,  How  I  Spent  my  Vacation. 

1.  By  a  Boy  of  Thirteen. 

The  vacation  was  the  third  week  in  April,  and  I  enjoyed  it  very- 
much.  The  greatest  fault  I  had  to  find  with  it  was  that  it  was  too 
short.  Only  to  think  of  it!  We  had  been  cooped  up  in  boarding- 
school  ever  since  Christmas,  and  then  to  have  but  one  short  week  to 
ourselves !  But  the  school  broke  up  on  Friday,  and  we  did  not  have 
to  return  until  Monday  of  the  week  following  vacation,  so  that  we 
had  several  days  over  the  exact  week,  and  we  all  made  the  most  of 
every  minute.  At  least,  I  did  for  one.  It  seemed  as  if  the  locomo- 
tive could  not  take  me  fast  enough,  although  it  did  go  thirty  miles 
an  hour.  My  wishes  went  faster  than  old  Mr.  Steam,  and  in  my 
thoughts  I  was  home  before  I  started.  Why  don't  they  get  some 
machine  to  go  by  telegraph,  for  boys  that  are  in  a  hurry  to  go  home 
from  boarding-school?  All  schoolboys,  I'm  sure,  would  take  the 
lightning-train.  Well,  I  reached  the  station  at  last,  and  there  stood 
Bob,  the  driver,  smiling  as  a  basket  of  chips,  with  old  Sorrel  and  the 
light  wagon,  ready  to  whirl  us  home  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  train  was 


PERSONAL    NARRATIVES.  327 

off,  we  jumped  into  the  wagon,  and  in  about  ten  minutes  there  we 
were  at  the  door !  I  don't  think  I'll  tell  you  what  was  the  first 
thing  done  when  I  met  mother  and  sister  Julia,  because  only  girls 
talk  about  such  things.  But  after  that  was  over,  what  do  you  think 
was  the  next  thing  I  did?  Well,  you'll  say  I  went  with  brother 
Ben  to  see  the  new  colt.  No,  you  are  out  there.  Well,  then,  you 
guess  we  went  to  the  barn-yard  to  see  the  fine  brood  of  chickens 
that  Tom  had  been  writing  about.  Wrong  again.  Well,  I  '11  tell 
you.  You  see,  I  had  not  been  home  since  Christmas,  and  during 
that  time  an  important  young  stranger  had  made  his  appearance  in 
the  house,  and  I  was  anxious  to  see  those  cunning  bright  eyes  and 
funny  little  pink  toes  that  sister  Julia  had  been  writing  about  in  her 
letters,  and  my  first  visit  was  made  to  the  cradle  in  mother's  room. 
And,  sure  enough,  there  he  was,  the  dearest  little  brother  that  any 
schoolboy  could  wish  to  see.  But  I  have  reached  the  end  of  my 
paper,  and  have  not  yet  got  through  the  first  day  of  my  vacation. 
So  you  will  have  to  guess  the  rest.  Only,  I  had  a  real  good  time  and 
lots  of  fun.  But  I  was  right  glad  to  see  the  boys  again  when  school 
reopened. 

2.  Also  by  a  Boy. 

First,  I  spent  it,  that  is,  I  spent  every  particle  of  it,  so  that  when 
I  arrived  back  here  at  Trenton,  I  had  not  a  large  enough  piece  left 
to  put  out  at  interest,  but  I  had  to  go  to  work  to  earn  more.  As  to 
the  mode  of  spending  it,  I  spent  part  in  travel,  part  in  play,  and  the 
third  part  in  work.  As  I  am  studying  book-keeping,  I  suppose  you 
would  like  to  have  a  bill  of  particulars. 

Commenced  business  this  day,  April  9th,  1878,  with  eight  days  in 
hand  as  paid-up  capital. 

Set  out  from  Trenton  at  quarter  of  nine,  arrived  at  Lambertville, 
changed  cars  for  Flemington,  at  which  place  I  arrived  at  eleven 
o'clock,  took  a  stroll  through  the  town,  saw  quite  a  number  of 
things,  returned  to  the  depot  in  time  for  the  train,  and  was  soon 
travelling  in  the  direction  of  Somerville.  Arriving  at  that  place, 
went  through  the  same  performances  as  at  Flemington,  and  at  half- 
past  two  was  again  travelling  at  the  fast  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour, 
and  arrived  at  my  destination  at  five  o'clock.  And  now  for  my 
travels  back  to  Trenton.  Reverse  this,  minus  a  few  jokes,  plus  a 
large  quantity  of  rain,  and  you  have  the  items  for  which  I  gave  ^ 
of  my  vacation. 


328  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

Play,  the  next  item,  or,  in  other  words,  Sundries,  to  include  rest, 
sleep,  and  play,  which  last  consisted  in  gathering  wild  flowers,  pull- 
ing up  stones  to  find  shells,  and  best  of  all,  hunting  for  salamanders 
through  the  marsh  without  getting  my  feet  wet.  The  price  of  this 
item  was  § f-  of  my  vacation. 

Next  item  work,  for  which  I  gave  f  f  of  my  vacation. 

These  are  all  the  items  that  are  necessary  in  journalizing  the 
transaction. 

3.  By  a  Miss  of  Twelve. 

Here  it  is — the  very  first  week  of  school,  and  we  have  to  write 
a  composition !  Our  teacher  says  we  must  write  about  M  how  I 
spent  my  vacation."  I  spent  mine  just  as  I  often  spend  my  money, 
and  I  have  no  good  of  it  after  it  is  all  gone. 

I  thought  that  we  would  go  away  just  as  soon  as  school  broke  up, 
and  I  told  all  the  girls  that  they  would  not  see  me  again  until  after 
vacation  was  over ;  but  we  did  not  go  for  ever  so  long.  My  Ma  and 
my  big  sisters  did  not  get  all  of  their  dresses  finished  in  time.  They 
had  been  getting  ready,  it  seems  to  me,  for  a  year,  and  they  had 
seamstresses  and  sewing-machines  in  the  house  for  I  don't  know  how 
long.  But  it  does  take  so  long  now  to  make  anything,  when  ladies' 
dresses,  and  little  girls'  too,  are  puffed,  and  ruffled,  and  tucked  so 
much,  to  say  nothing  of  double  skirts  and  panniers.  How  I  did 
wish  they  would  go  and  take  me  to  the  country  with  just  my  old 
school -frocks!  Of  course,  my  young-lady  sisters  thought  I  was  a 
foolish  little  girl,  and  I  suppose  I  was;  but  then  I  know  what  I  want. 
After  they  were  all  ready  to  go,  it  was  so  late  in  the  season  that 
when  we  arrived  at  Saratoga,  all  the  good  rooms  were  taken,  and 
we  had  to  be  put  up  at  the  top  of  the  house  in  a  little  bit  of  a  hot 
room.  There  was  no  place  to  put  our  beautiful  new  dresses,  or  to 
dress  ourselves  in.  I  did  not  care  so  much  for  that ;  but  my  sisters 
were  real  cross,  for  they  like  to  see  themselves  when  they  dress, 
and  not  to  have  a  little  bit  of  a  looking-glass  that  was  not  much 
bigger  than  your  face.  I  had  to  be  dressed  up  so  much,  while  we 
stayed  at  Saratoga,  that  I  could  not  play  and  run  about  as  I  wanted 
to,  for  Ma  said  I  would  spoil  my  new  dresses  that  cost  so  much 
money,  and  had  so  much  work  on  them.  After  we  left  Saratoga 
we  were  to  visit  an  aunt  of  my  father's,  who  lives  in  the  real 
country.  I  was  so  glad  when  I  heard  that!  for  I  was  sure  that  I 
would  have  some  fun  there.     It  was  a  large  house,  and  the  orchards 


PERSONAL    NARRATIVES.  329 

and  fields  and  everything  were  ever  so  nice ;  but  it  rained  almost 
all  the  time  we  had  to  stay  there,  and  I  could  not  be  out  of  doors 
hardly  any.  If  I  had  had  real  thick  boots,  and  calico  dresses,  I 
might  have  gone  out  some  days  when  it  did  not  rain;  but  the 
ground  was  wet,  and  I  had  to  stay  in  the  house  almost  all  the  time; 
so  I  did  not  have  much  more  fun  at  the  farm  than  I  did  at  Saratoga. 
We  reached  home  only  the  day  before  school  began,  and  that 
makes  me  feel  as  if  I  had  spent  my  vacation  and  had  no  good  of  it. 


4.  By  a  Miss  of  Thirteen. 

Well,  it  was  vacation  at  last.  I  thought  it  would  never  come.  I 
was  going  down  to  Delaware  County  to  spend  a  week  with  Aunt 
Maria.  I  thought  it  would  be  fine  fun  to  travel  by  myself,  but 
father  hunted  up  a  solemn  old  minister,  who  engaged  to  see  me 
safely  half-way  there,  and  into  the  right  path  for  reaching  my  des- 
tination. So  he  called  for  me,  and  off  we  trotted  as  gay  as  two  old 
grasshoppers.  Mr.  Featherstone  was  not  half  so  solemn  inside  as  he 
was  out,  and  by  the  time  we  reached  the  depot  I  felt  quite  pleased 
with  him.  He  bought  the  tickets  and  checked  the  baggage,  and 
when  we  reached  the  junction,  where  I  changed  cars — but  he  went 
on  —  he  gave  me  my  ticket  and  a  check,  and  wished  me  good-by. 

I  stuck  my  finger  through  the  leather  loop  of  the  check,  and  held 
my  ticket  as  tight  as  a  vice,  seated  myself  in  the  train,  and  was  soon 
whisking  away  at  a  rapid  rate.  At  last  the  cars  stopped  at  my 
station,  and  out  I  jumped,  but  never  a  sign  of  a  carriage  of  any 
description  awaited  my  coming,  and  it  slowly  dawned  on  my  be- 
nighted vision  that  they  had  made  a  mistake.  However,  there  I 
was,  and  there  I  must  be.  So  off  I  started  for  the  depot-master, 
keeping  one  eye  roving  around  in  search  of  my  baggage,  but  it  did 
not  appear.  However,  the  man  did,  and  I  thrust  my  check  in  his 
face,  and  demanded  my  baggage.  "Here,  Miss,"  he  answered,  and 
dragged  forward  a  rusty  old  valise,  marked  M.  R.  F.  Horror  of 
horrors !  the  old  minister  had  made  a  mistake,  and  there  was  my 
new  blue-silk  dress  whisking  off  to  Iowa  with  him,  and  here  was  I 
with  his  old  shirts  and  pantaloons,  and  sermons.  Catch  me  making 
such  a  mistake  as  that !  Thought  I  could  n't  travel  alone,  did  he  ? 
Well,  I  would  n't  have  changed  baggage  with  an  old  minister,  any- 
how. Precious  lot  of  good  all  my  bows  and  ruffles  will  do  him ! 
I  felt  like  making  a  bonfire  of  all  his  sermons,  and  him  too.  • 
28* 


330  COMPOSITION  AND    RIIETORia 

But  it  was  of  no  use  to  scold  the  depot-master.  He  soon  com- 
prehended the  joke,  and  almost  laughed  himself  into  convulsions. 

After  that,  he  said  he  would  get  me  a  wagon  and  drive  me  over. 
Just  then  I  felt  in  my  pocket  for  my  porte-monnaie.  It  was  not 
there,  and  then  flashed  across  my  mind  a  distinct  notion  of  my 
putting  it  down  by  my  plate  while  I  ate  my  breakfast.  I  tried  to 
explain  matters  to  the  man,  but  he  only  laughed  the  harder.  At 
last,  a  nice-looking  young  gentleman,  with  a  black  moustache,  came 
along  in  a  light  wagon,  and  very  kindly  took  me  over  to  Aunt  Maria's. 

He  was  very  kind,  for  he  telegraphed  to  Mr.  Featherstone  about 
my  baggage,  and  sent  his  on  to  him.  When  we  reached  aunt's  we 
found  them  just  starting  to  meet  the  next  train. 

Well,  I  had  a  good  time,  after  all.  Aunt  Maria  shortened  a  nice 
gingham  wrapper  for  me  to  wear.  My  baggage  never  came  until 
the  day  before  I  left  for  home :  but  Mr.  Frank  Linden,  the  young 
man  with  the  black  moustache,  took  me  back,  so  there  were  no 
more  mistakes. 

Example.  —  Subject,  A  Trip  by  Kail. 

The  following  narrative  is  a  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which  one  may  he  sup- 
posed to  write  who  is  more  mature,  and  has  had  more  experience  in  writing.  It 
is  intended  to  show  how  many  instructive  things  one  may  see  in  the  course  of  an 
hour's  travel  by  railroad  in  any  direction,  or  at  any  hour  of  the  day,  if  he  will 
only  keep  his  eyes  open,  and  let  his  mind  work  upon  what  he  sees.  Even  though 
he  goes  over  the  same  route  every  day  in  the  year,  he  may  every  day  see  some- 
thing new.   The  writer  describes  a  ride  in  the  cars  from  Philadelphia  to  Trenton. 

1.  By  an  Adult. 
The  last  time  I  took  my  seat  in  the  cars  at  the  Kensington  depot, 
all  the  passengers  were  startled  by  a  loud  and  angry  altercation  in 
the  adjoining  car.  Fears  of  personal  violence,  perhaps  of  homicide, 
began  to  be  excited.  A  young  man,  dressed  as  a  gentleman,  had 
forced  his  way  rudely  into  the  car  known  as  the  "Ladies'  Car,"  and 
insisted  on  remaining  there,  though  not  accompanied  by  a  lady.  lie 
said,  on  presenting  himself  at  the  entrance,  that  he  had  a  lady  in 
company  who  was  a  little  behind  him,  and  having  uttered  this  delib- 
erate falsehood  for  the  purpose  of  tricking  the  doorkeeper,  coolly 
walked  in  and  took  a  seat.  The  official,  faithful  to  his  trust,  and 
finding  himself  deceived,  followed  the  man  into  the  car,  acquainted 
him  civilly  with  the  positive  nature  of  the  orders  under  which  the 


PERSONAL    NARRATIVES.  331 

conductors  acted,  and  requested  him  to  leave  the  car.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  loud  bluster  and  bravado  which  had  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  even  those  in  the  next  car.  He  never  would  leave  the  car 
alive,  never!  "Just  try  to  put  me  out,  if  you  dare!  I  'd  like  to  see 
you  raise  your  hand  on  me.  You  've  mistaken  your  man  this  time !  " 
and  so  on,  and  so  on,  the  bully  all  the  while  talking  louder,  and  with 
more  violent  expressions,  until  he  had  worked  himself  up  into  quite 
a  fury.  The  well-trained  and  civil  official  used  no  threats,  called 
the  man  no  hard  names,  did  not  taunt  him  with  his  impudent  and 
ungentlemanly  falsehood,  but  insisted  on  his  vacating  the  seat  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  road.  It  was  amusing  to  see 
how  the  courage  of  the  vaporous  poltroon  oozed  out  before  the 
steady  and  cool  persistence  of  the  doorkeeper,  especially  when 
other  officials  began  to  appear  in  the  background,  adequate  in  num- 
bers to  carry  into  effect  the  orders  under  which  they  were  acting. 
So,  in  less  than  two  minutes  after  his  threats  of  violence  and  loud- 
mouthed avowal  that  he  would  never,  never,  never  leave  the  car 
alive,  the  man  quietly  walked  off  like  a  whipped  cur,  amid  the  half- 
restrained  titter  of  the  other  passengers. 

Soon  after  emerging  from  the  depot,  my  attention  was  attracted 
to  another  young  man  standing  on  the  front  platform.  He  was  just 
on  the  dividing  line  between  youth  and  manhood,  and  everything 
in  his  appearance  and  manner  indicated  that  he  was  breaking  away 
from  the  restraints  of  home  and  school,  and  about  to  throw  himself 
into  the  current  of  gayety  and  dissipation.  I  happened  to  know 
something  of  his  history  and  of  his  present  surroundings,  and  I  could 
not  but  tremble  to  look  forward  a  few  years  into  his  probable  future. 
The  jaunty  air  in  which  he  wore  his  cap  awry,  as  if  ashamed  to  be 
thought  precise,  the  affected  nonchalance  with  which  he  puffed  out 
the  curling  smoke  from  the  cigar  that  was  evidently  sickening  him, 
the  jockeying  and  slang  expressions  that  occasionally  fell  from  his 
lips,  all  so  out  of  keeping  with  the  staid  and  decorous  country-home 
in  which  he  had  been  nurtured,  could  not  fail  to  awaken  anxiety  in 
the  mind  of  any  one  who  observed  him,  and  who  had  much  experi- 
ence of  the  way  in  which  young  men  usually  begin  a  downward 
course.  This  youth  has  before  his  mind  some  false  ideal  that  is  lead- 
ing him  to  ruin.  Some  city  swell  has  struck  his  fancy,  and  he  is 
devoting  his  energies  to  making  a  poor  imitation  of  the  sorry  article. 
How  I  pity !  how  my  heart  aches  for  his  mother !  More  young 
men  are  led  astray  by  bad  taste,  by  their  admiration  of  false  stand- 


332  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

ards,  than  by  any  inherent  bad  inclination.  Fancy  ruins  more  than 
passion  does.  Such,  at  least,  is  my  conviction,  the  result  of  a  pretty 
large  acquaintance  with  young  men. 

In  railway  travel,  I  am  often  led  to  wonder  what  is  the  history  of 
the  newsboys  who  supply  us  with  newspapers  and  magazines.  If  I 
am  not  mistaken,  there  is  a  gradual  improvement  in  the  character 
of  these  young  traders.  They  do  not  seem  to  me  so  reckless  as  they 
used  to  be,  years  ago.  Their  business  makes  them  sharp.  But  gen- 
erally I  find  them  honest  and  civil.  Taking  a  fancy,  this  morning,  to 
the  looks  of  one  who  sold  me  the  "  Press,"  I  thought  I  would  make 
the  experiment,  in  a  very  small  way,  to  see  what  the  boy  was  made 
of.  So,  having  finished  reading  my  paper,  and  seeing  his  stock 
nearly  exhausted,  as  he  was  passing  my  seat  industriously  plying 
his  trade,  I  made  him  an  offer  of  my  copy.  He  looked  at  me  very 
curiously  for  a  moment,  as  if  not  comprehending  my  meaning,  and 
when  at  length  he  understood  that  I  meant  to  give  him  the  paper, 
which  an  hour  before  I  had  bought  of  him,  his  face  beamed  all 
over  with  pleasure,  and  there  was  no  mistaking  the  genuineness  of 
his  "  Thank  you,  sir."  The  gentleman  in  front  of  me,  catching  the 
idea,  handed  the  boy,  in  like  manner,  his  paper,  and  a  lady  on  the 
other  side  of  the  car  gave  the  boy  hers.  At  each  successive  addi- 
tion to  his  stock,  it  was  worth  to  us  many  times  the  five  cents  into 
which  the  boy  presently  coined  it,  to  see  the  evidences  of  good  feel- 
ing and  good  breeding  which  it  called  out  from  him.  I  am  almost 
sure  that  the  boy  has  a  pleasant  home  and  a  good  mother.  I  could 
not  but  feel  as  if  I  would  like  to  know  something  of  his  history, 
outside  of  his  car-life. 

Every  regular  traveller  over  the  southern  end  of  the  road  between 
Philadelphia  and  New  York,  is  familiar  with  the  "Maple-candy 
Man."  No  vender  of  articles  upon  the  cars  is  such  a  general  favor- 
ite. I  had  missed  him  for  several  months.  What  had  become  of 
him,  no  one  seemed  to  know.  The  newsboys  had  his  candy  for 
sale,  but  it  seemed  somehow,  not  to  have  the  same  attractions  as 
when  brought  round  in  that  quaint  mahogany  box,  and  offered  with 
the  good-natured  persuasions  of  the  original  seller.  There  was  on 
this  occasion  a  general  brightening  up  of  faces  as  the  u  candy-man  " 
once  more  made  his  appearance,  and  very  few  in  the  cars  allowed 
him  to  pass  without  making  an  investment.  Circumstances  having 
led  me  some  years  ago  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  this  man,  I  took 
the  liberty  to  ask  him  the  cause  of  his  disappearance  for  the  last 


PERSONAL    NARRATIVES.  333 

few  months  from  the  scene  of  his  daily  operations.  The  narrative 
which  he  gave  me  was  not  long,  but  it  was  full  of  significance.  By 
his  industry,  tact,  and  economy,  he  had,  in  his  humble  business  of 
making  and  selling  maple-candy,  not  only  supported  comfortably 
his  family,  but  had  laid  up  quite  a  snug  little  sum  of  money.  Last 
December  he  had  the  misfortune  to  make  five  hundred  dollars  by  a 
successful  operation  in  "oil"  stock.  Said  he:  "It  set  me  crazy;  I 
quit  my  business  and  went  to  the  oil  regions.  I  stayed  there  till  I 
had  found  the  bottom  of  six  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  of  hard- 
earned  money,  and  now  I  have  come  back,  a  wiser  man,  to  replace 
by  patient  toil  what  I  so  rashly  threw  away."  How  many  histories 
are  recorded  in  this  one  example ! 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  car  from  me  sat  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished jurists  of  the  land,  absorbed  in  the  newspaper.  Not  far 
from  Bristol,  as  we  were  passing  Landreth's  Seed-farm,  the  Chan- 
cellor came  over  to  where  I  sat,  tapped  me  somewhat  quickly  on  the 
arm,  and  said,  pointing  out  of  the  window,  "Do  you  see  that? " 

"What?" 

"  That  beautiful  tree :  I  never  pass  this  way,  without  stopping  to 
admire  it." 

Sure  enough,  there  in  the  middle  of  the  field,  was  a  stately  tree, 
standing  entirely  alone,  not  so  large  or  stately  as  many  other  trees 
that  I  had  seen ;  but  ample  in  its  proportions,  and  in  every  branch, 
limb,  and  leaf  a  picture  of  perfect  vegetable  health.  More  than  all, 
there  was  an  individuality  about  this  tree,  as  marked  as  that  of  a 
human  being,  and  I  found  it  was  this  quality  especially  that  had 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Chancellor.  He  said  he  had  his  tree 
acquaintances  in  almost  every  neighborhood  that  he  visited  in  mak- 
ing his  circuits,  and  he  went  on  to  describe  to  me  particular  trees 
that  he  had  known,  some  of  them  for  thirty  and  forty  years.  Each 
of  these,  he  said,  seemed  to  him  a  personal  friend,  and  he  never 
went  into  the  neighborhood  of  any  of  them  without  going  out  and 
looking  at  it.  It  was  quite  a  new  idea  to  me,  this  numbering  par- 
ticular trees,  here  and  there  over  the  country,  as  among  one's  per- 
sonal acquaintances  and  friends.  I  had  often,  always,  indeed,  ad- 
mired trees  in  the  mass,  as  a  forest,  woods,  or  copse;  but  never 
before  had  recognized  that  marked  individuality  which  a  tree  ac- 
quires when  standing  out  by  itself,  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  large 
field.  This  quality  it  is  which  gives  them  their  singular  power  of 
human  companionship. 


334  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

About  half  a  mile  out  from  Morrisville,  every  traveller  on  that 
road  must  have  observed  a  low,  unsightly  pond  or  marsh.  The 
water  is  stagnant  and  discolored,  and  looks  as  though  it  might  bo 
reeking  with  noisome  and  pestilential  vapors.  A  more  forbidding 
object  is  not  to  be  seen  between  Philadelphia  and  Trenton.  Yet 
from  out  the  green  slime  of  that  vile  morass,  Nature  sends  forth 
some  of  her  loveliest  children  to  greet  the  sun.  I  think  I  have 
never  seen  lilies  of  such  absolute  purity,  such  almost  dazzling  white- 
ness, as  those  which  bloom  on  the  bosom  of  this  green  and  slimy 
pool.  Not  more  remarkable  than  this  vegetable  phenomenon  is 
that  wonderful  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  under  whose  quickening 
influences  we  sometimes  see  an  angel-lily  blooming  into  heavenly 
purity  and  sweetness  in  the  very  lowest  stratum  of  human  society, 
among  the  vilest  companionship  of  courts  and  alleys  reeking  with 
moral  pestilence. 

Other  Subjects. 

1.  What  I  Saw  this  Morning,  on  the  Way  to  School. 

2.  An  Account  of  a  Day  spent  in  the  Country  by  One 
living  in  the  City. 

3.  An  Account  of  a  Day  spent  in  the  City  by  One  living 
in  the  Country. 

4.  A  Ride  in  the  Street  Car. 

5.  What  we  Did  at  our  Picnic. 

6.  A  Journey  to  the  Delaware  Water  Gap.* 

7.  A  Journey  through  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 

8.  Ascent  of  Mount  Washington. 

9.  A  Sail  up  the  Hudson. 

10.  A  Visit  to  a  Coal-Mine. 

11.  An  Excursion  among  the  Virginia  Springs. 

12.  A  Fishing  Excursion. 

13.  Our  Nutting  Party. 

14.  A  Boating  Excursion. 

15.  A  May-day  Party. 

16.  A  Moonlight  Walk  at  the  Sea-side. 

♦Subjects  of  this  kind  will  be  varied,  of  course,  according  to  the  experience  of 
the  writer.  The  student  should  narrate  the  occurrences  of  some  journey  which  he 
has  actually  made. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DESCRIPTIONS. 

Aftee  sufficient  practice  in  writing  personal  narratives,  the  stu- 
dent should  give  attention  to  writing  descriptions.  In  the  practice 
of  many  teachers,  descriptive  compositions  precede  narratives ;  but 
I  doubt  the  propriety  of  such  a  course.  Description  is  in  itself 
more  difficult  than  narration,  and  it  requires  more  matured  habits 
of  observation  and  expression.  To  describe  well  is  indeed  a  rare 
attainment. 

Talcing  Notes.— An  essential  condition  to  success  in  describing  is  the  prac- 
tice of  noting  down  on  the  spot  the  things  to  be  described.  In  personal  narra- 
tive, we  can  trust  in  good  measure  to  recollection.  We  usually  remember  with 
sufficient  vividness  transactions  in  which  we  have  been  ourselves  the  actors. 
But  it  is  different  in  description.  Here,  if  we  wish  to  succeed,  and  to  give  to 
others  a  picture  which  will  be  thoroughly  true  and  fresh,  and  which  will  bring 
up  to  their  minds  a  scene  exactly  as  it  presented  itself  to  ours,  we  must  stand 
before  it,  pencil  in  hand,  and  note  down  its  features  while  the  eye  is  actually  on 
them.  This  taking  of  notes  on  the  spot,  while  in  the  very  act  of  observing,  is  as 
important  to  one  who  would  be  a  good  describer,  as  is  out-door  sketching  to  a 
landscape  painter.  In  both  cases  the  picture  must  be  worked  up  by  subsequent 
labor  and  art.  But  the  materials  must  be  gathered  while  the  original  scene  is 
actually  before  the  eyes.  Thus  only,  in  either  case,  will  the  student  learn  to  be 
accurate.    Thus  only  will  his  pictures  acquire  freshness  and  life.  , 

Description  and  Narration.—  Often,  as  in  works  of  history  and  of  fiction, 
that  which  is  written  is  partly  narrative  and  partly  descriptive.  In  the  account 
of  a  battle,  for  instance,  a  description  of  the  place  is  essential  to  an  understand- 
ing of  the  transaction,  and  the  writer  who  wishes  to  tell  the  story  intelligently 
visits  the  spot,  if  possible,  and  takes  note,  while  there,  of  every  point  which  is 
to  be  included  in  his  narrative.  No  man  could  give  an  intelligent  account  of 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  for  instance,  who  had  not  himself  stood  on  Cemetery 
Hill,  and  read  the  story  with  that  curious  panorama  of  hills  before  him,  the  de- 
scription of  which  forms  a  necessary  part  of  the  narrative  of  the  battle. 

Example  of  Novelists.  —  Many  novelists  observe  this  rule  in  regard  to  the 
localities  involved  in  the  plot  of  their  story.    Sir  Walter  Scott  laid  the  scenes  of 

335 


336  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

his  stories  in  places  with  which  he  had  been  personally  familiar  from  boyhood ; 
and  if  in  any  instance  he  was  in  doubt  about  a  single  feature  of  the  landscape 
described,  he  verified  it  by  actual  observation.  It  is  recorded  of  him  that  he 
once  rode  forty  or  fifty  miles  on  horseback  to  make  sure  of  the  correctness  of  one 
of  his  descriptions. 

Selection  Necessary.—  Another  condition  to  success  in  description  is  to 
make  a  judicious  selection  of  the  points  to  be  described.  Stand  where  we  will, 
the  things  to  be  seen  are  numberless :  we  cannot  undertake  to  name  even,  much 
less  to  describe,  all  that  we  see.  The  writer  should  first  settle  in  his  own  mind 
the  object  of  his  essay.  The  points  selected  will  vary  according  as  he  writes  for 
information,  for  amusement,  for  a  satisfying  of  the  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and 
the  like.  In  making  observations  preparatory  to  the  description,  it  will  be  found 
best  not  to  observe  any  particular  order,  at  the  time,  but  to  put  things  down  just 
as  the  eye  meets  them,  reserving  the  grouping  to  the  final  process  of  finishing  up. 

Avoid  Generalities.—  Another  condition  is  that  we  particularize.  Young 
writers  are  apt  to  deal  in  easy  generalities,  to  speak  of  trees  —  not  of  some  one 
tree  which  they  know  something  about ;  of  gardens,  not  of  that  particular  garden 
which  is  before  their  eyes ;  of  landscapes  in  general,  not  of  that  particular  land- 
scape which  is  spread  out  before  them.  Descriptions  should  deal  with  the  con- 
crete, not  with  the  abstract ;  with  particulars,  not  with  generals. 

Subjects.— Subjects  for  description  exist  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Every 
man,  woman,  or  child  that  one  is  acquainted  with,  every  domestic  animal, 
every  house,  every  field,  every  bridge  or  stream,  may  form  a  subject  for  descrip- 
tion ;  and  the  more  familiar  the  object,  the  better,  especially  for  elementary 
exercises. 

Describing  what  we  have  not  Seen.— We  are  required  sometimes  to  de- 
scribe objects  with  which  we  have  become  acquainted  by  reading  and  study, 
instead  of  observation.  We  may,  for  instance,  be  required  to  describe  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon,  or  ancient  Rome,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands,  or  the  crater  of 
Vesuvius,  none  of  which  we  have  seen.  In  such  cases  we  should  observe  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  suggestions  already  made.  In  reading  about  the  object, 
we  should  make  notes  of  the  several  points  which  seem  suitable  to  the  purpose ; 
and  after  thus  collecting  the  materials,  we  should  combine  them  in  some  orderly 
arrangement,  as  we  would  in  describing  what  we  have  seen. 

In  the  ordinary  uses  of  life,  description  and  narrative  very  commonly  and 
properly  go  together.  But  in  school  exercises,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the 
art  of  description,  it  is  well  occasionally  to  practise  description  apart  from  nar- 
rative, to  assign  as  the  subject  for  an  essay  the  description  of  some  specific  person, 
place,  scene,  or  thing. 

Examples  are  given  of  both  kinds  of  description,  and  of  various  degrees  of 
maturity. 

Example.  —  Subject,  Our  Cat  and  the  Rabbit. 

NOTES. 

Time  — May  29th,  afternoon. 

Place  — our  back  parlor  and  yard. 

Mother  and  I  were  together  reading. 

The  rabbit  of  a  dark,  mottled  brown. 

Eating  grass—  his  ears  —  his  eyes  —  the  way  he  jumped. 


DESCRIPTIONS.  337 

The  cat  — his  eyes  and  tail— crouching— afraid  to  attack. 
What  became  of  Bunny. 
Goldy's  cowardice. 

Our  excitement— throwing  stones— no  use. 
(N.  B.— These  notes  were  jotted  down  after  the  adventure  was  over,  not  at 
the  actual  time  of  the  occurrence.) 

Description  by  a  Boy. 

One  afternoon  in  May,  as  mother  and  I  were  in  the  back  parlor, 
reading,  we  saw,  all  at  once,  in  the  grass-plot  back  of  the  house, 
only  a  few  feet  from  where  we  were  sitting,  a  dear  little  wild 
rabbit.  The  grass  was  rather  high,  and  he  was  busy  as  a  bee, 
biting  off  the  tops,  which  were  most  inviting.  He  seemed  to  be 
quite  particular  in  his  fancies,  picking  those  blades  which  looked 
most  fresh  and  tender.  "We  sat  still  and  watched  him  for  some 
time,  with  the  greatest  curiosity,  as  we  could  see  him  perfectly. 
After  nibbling  awhile,  he  would  stop,  and  stand  perfectly  still,  as 
if  watching  against  surprise. 

His  eyes  were  not,  like  those  of  the  cat  or  dog,  in  the  front  of 
his  face,  and  looking  forward,  but  on  the  sides  of  his  head,  so  that 
he  could  look  right  and  left  without  stirring;  in  fact,  they  stuck 
out  beyond  the  rest  of  his  head,  so  that  probably  he  could  see  in 
every  direction  without  turning.  This  may  be  to  enable  him  better 
to  protect  himself,  as  he  cannot  fight,  and  his  only  chance  of  escape 
is  by  flight. 

I  noticed  that  he  had  a  peculiar  way  of  sitting  upon  his  haunches, 
with  his  body  and  head  erect,  and  his  forefeet  entirely  free.  I 
could  not  see  whether  or  not  he  used  his  forefeet  as  we  do  our 
hands,  for  taking  hold  of  the  grass  and  other  things,  but  I  think  he 
did.  It  had  that  appearance.  His  mode  of  running,  also,  was  pe- 
culiar. He  went  by  leaps,  using  chiefly  his  hind  legs.  His  color 
was  different  from  that  of  the  tame  rabbits  which  I  have  seen, 
being  of  a  dark,  mottled  brown. 

Our  cat  got  sight  of  the  rabbit,  and  became  at  once  very  much 
excited.  Mr.  Goldy  (that  is  our  cat's  name)  was  standing  on  the 
porch,  about  seven  feet  from  where  Bunny  was  nibbling,  and  we 
(mother  and  I)  were  looking  on  from  the,  parlor  window.  The 
cat's  eye  flashed,  and  his  tail  moved  slightly;  he  crouched  as  if 
ready  any  moment  to  spring.  The  scene  became  very  exciting. 
"We  expected  every  moment  to  see  poor  Bunny  murdered  in  open 
day,  right  before  our  eyes.  But  just  as  we  were  going  to  warn  him 
29  W 


338  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

of  his  danger,  he  caught  sight  of  the  treacherous  foe,  and  forthwith 
suspended  operations. 

Then  ensued  a  moment  of  awful  suspense.  Bunny  stood  perfectly 
still,  as  if  afraid  that  the  least  motion  would  bring  on  the  catas- 
trophe. Goldy,  also,  cat-like,  watched  and  waited,  in  hope  of  sOme 
more  favorable  moment  to  make  the  final  spring.  At  last  Bunny 
could  stand  it  no  longer,  and,  with  a  wild  bound,  started  for  the 
back  part  of  the  grounds.  We  expected  of  course  to  see  Goldy 
follow  and  seize  his  victim.  Instead  of  that,  he  walked  composedly 
to  the  place  where  Bunny  had  been  nibbling,  smelled  the  grass  and 
ground  a  little,  and  then  sneaked  away  to  the  kitchen.  The  fact 
was,  Mr.  Goldy  showed  the  white  feather,  and  was  about  as  glad  to 
get  off  as  Bunny  was. 

This  Mr.  Bunny  was  a  cunning  chap.  After  escaping  from  the 
yard,  he  went  a  few  rods  into  the  adjoining  field,  and  stopped  in  the 
midst  of  some  high  grass,  where  he  remained,  head  up,  perfectly 
motionless.  I  threw  ever  so  many  stones  at  him,  some  of  which 
came  very  near  hitting  him,  and  I  shouted  again  and  again,  but  he 
remained  as  still  as  if  he  had  been  a  bush  or  a  clump  of  grass;  and 
I  have  no  doubt  he  had  sense  enough  to  know  that  moving  about 
and  dodging  would  be  the  surest  way  of  betraying  his  whereabouts 
to  his  enemies.  I  watched  him  from  time  to  time  all  the  afternoon, 
until  after  dark,  and  still  he  did  not  move. 

Example,  —  Subject,  A  View  from  the  Bridge. 

Note.  —  The  Bridge  here  referred  to  is  the  New  Bridge  over  the  Delaware,  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  the  time  selected  for  the  description  was  an  afternoon  in  June. 

Description.    By  a  more  advanced  Student. 

In  crossing  the  bridge  this  afternoon,  I  saw  many  things  that  in- 
terested me,  some  of  which  I  shall  describe.  In  going  over,  I  took 
the  path  on  the  north  side,  looking  up  the  stream ;  in  returning,  I 
took  the  path  on  the  south  side,  looking  down  the  stream.  I  shall 
follow  the  same  order  in  my  description. 

Looking  north  from  the  bridge,  the  most  conspicuous  object  is 
the  State  Asylum  for  the  Insane.  This  noble  edifice,  so  beautiful 
in  its  architectural  proportions,  has  a  deep  background  of  forest- 
trees,  giving  it  an  air  of  sweet  and  quiet  repose.  The  building  itself 
stands  on  a  gentle  elevation,  with  a  lawn  sloping  down  in  front ; 
and  both  building  and  lawn  are  open  to  the  south,  and  consequently 


DESCRIPTIONS.  339 

are  full  in  the  eye  of  one  looking  northward  from  the  bridge,  as  I 
did  this  afternoon.  But  behind  the  building  and  at  each  end  of  it 
is  an  encompassing  forest  of  living  green,  as  if  the  enormous  struc- 
ture were  actually  reposing  upon  a  mass  of  foliage.  The  effect  is 
extremely  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Another  conspicuous  object  is  a  brown-stone  dwelling-house, 
standing  near  the  river,  on  the  east  bank,  and  not  far  from  the 
bridge.  This  house,  like  the  Asylum,  is  embosomed  in  the  foliage 
of  large  forest-trees,  not  so  closely  as  to  exclude  a  view  of  the 
building,  but  just  enough  to  give  that  air  of  softness  and  repose 
which  was  remarked  of  the  Asylum.  The  house  is  built  in  the 
style  known  among  architects  as  the  Norman,  with  a  flat  roof  and 
a  high  square  tower  on  one  corner.  The  hard,  angular  character 
of  the  building  is  softened  to  the  eye  by  the  mass  of  foliage  in  which 
it  seems  to  repose.  Along  the  same  bank,  and  still  nearer  to  the 
bridge,  are  several  other  new  buildings,  with  pretty  Mansard  roofs. 
On  the  western  bank  is  a  building  standing  back  some  distance  from 
the  river,  and  so  unusual  in  its  shape  and  appearance  that  I  could 
not  determine,  without  going  nearer,  whether  it  was  a  dwelling- 
house  or  a  barn. 

Among  the  natural  objects  that  attract  the  eye  is  a  pretty  island, 
standing  midway  in  the  river,  about  two  miles  off,  apparently,  and 
beautifully  green  on  all  sides  down  to  the  water's  edge.  The  river 
itself,  however,  is  quite  as  pretty  as  any  of  its  surroundings.  At 
this  season  of  the  year,  particularly  when  swollen  by  recent  rains, 
its  current  is  broad  and  full ;  and  there  is  sufficient  descent  at  this 
point  to  give  to  the  water  that  steady,  gliding  motion  which  is 
always  pleasing.  On  the  right  bank,  close  under  the  bridge,  was 
quite  a  large  collection  of  row-boats,  kept  there  apparently  for 
pleasure-parties.  Two  or  three  lazy  boatmen  were  lounging  about, 
as  if  waiting  for  customers.  I  suppose  these  men  keep  the  boats 
for  hire.  There  were  fifteen  of  these  boats,  all  light  and  trim- 
looking,  as  if  made  for  service,  but  none  of  them  gay  or  fanciful  in 
style. 

When  about  half-way  across  the  bridge,  I  noticed  a  fine  echo  on 
the  other  side.  A  dog  was  barking,  and  his  barks  all  came  distinctly 
repeated  by  the  echo.  The  bridge  does  not  appear  to  be  very  firmly 
built,  as  it  vibrates  considerably  every  time  a  vehicle  of  any  size 
passes  over  it. 

The  bridge  has  not  escaped  entirely  the  assaults  of  the  advertisers. 


340  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

On  one  of  the  beams,  near  the  middle,  is  a  big  placard  with  the 
inscription,  "  Buy  your  Goods  at  Clark  and  Sanderson's."  This  is 
nothing,  however,  to  the  small  bridge  over  the  canal,  on  the  other 
side.  That  is  completely  covered  with  advertising  placards.  Is  it 
right  to  have  our  streets,  and  fences,  and  buildings  of  every  kind 
thus  turned  into  an  advertising  medium  ?  It  seems  as  if  the  whole 
face  of  the  country  were  becoming  one  big  advertising  sheet. 

The  view  from  the  south  side  of  the  bridge  is  less  picturesque  than 
that  from  the  north,  and  is  proportionably  more  varied  and  exciting. 
The  descent  of  the  water  becomes  so  great  as  to  produce  several 
rapids,  and  there  are  many  projecting  rocks,  giving  a  very  different 
aspect  to  the  stream  from  that  which  it  has  above  the  bridge.  A 
large  part  of  Trenton  lies  in  full  view.  Among  the  principal  public 
buildings  in  sight  are  the  State-House,  the  First  and  Third  Presby- 
terian churches,  Taylor  Hall,  the  State-Street  Methodist  Church,  the 
Court-House,  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  First  Bap- 
tist Church,  two  or  three  large  rolling-mills,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
the  Old  Trenton  Bridge.  This  last  structure  is  said  to  be  a  very 
solid  one.  It  certainly  has  done  good  service.  But  it  is  about  the 
meanest-looking  concern  one  can  find  in  a  day's  travel. 

Other  Subjects. 

1.  A  Visit  to  a  Picture-Gallery. 

2.  A  Description  of  a  Kolling-Mill. 

3.  Sights  at  the  Railroad  Station. 

4.  A  Description  of  the  Girard  College  Buildings. 

5.  A  Description  of  a  Snow-Storm. 

6.  A  Description  of  a  Factory. 

7.  A  Description  of  the  United  States  Mint. 

8.  The  View  from  the  Chestnut-Street  Bridge,  Philadel- 

phia. 

9.  The  View  from  the  Top  of  the  State-House. 
10.  A  Description  of  Independence  Hall. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS. 

In  the  exercises  which  have  been  given  thus  far,  the  subjects 
have  involved,  1.  Objects  Simply ;  2.  Transactions ;  3.  Qual- 
ities ;  4.  Imaginary  Subjects ;  5.  Personal  Narratives ;  6.  De- 
scriptions. 

When  pupils  are  once  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  mental 
steps  implied  in  these  six  classes  of  composition,  they  may 
proceed  to  write  upon  any  theme  of  which  they  have  a  com- 
petent knowledge. 

The  Object. — The  object  of  the  exercise,  it  should  be  remembered, 
is  not  to  add  to  the  pupil's  knowledge,  or  even  to  test  it,  but  simply 
to  train  him  in  the  art  of  hunting  up  and  setting  in  order  the 
thoughts  he  may  have  on  any  subject,  and  in  expressing  those 
thoughts  with  rhetorical  propriety.  Invention  in  any  other  sense, 
in  the  sense  at  least  of  investigation  for  the  purpose  of  adding  to 
one's  knowledge  and  scholarship,  belongs,  not  to  Khetoric,  but  to 
general  education. 

Historical  Narrations,  though  often  recommended  for  introductory 
exercises,  are  unsuitable  for  that  purpose.  They  are,  of  all  subjects, 
the  ones  least  conducive  to  the  development  of  the  power  of  Inven- 
tion. So  far  from  making  the  pupil  inventive,  they  almost  inevitably 
beget  in  him  the  habit  of  copying.  Writing  out  from  recollection 
what  one  has  read  of  any  historical  incident  may  be  a  good  exercise 
for  the  memory,  but  it  is  a  very  poor  one  for  teaching  composition. 
Writing  critiques  upon  historical  characters  or  events  is  an  excel- 
lent exercise  for  advanced  scholars,  who  are  already  versed  in  the 
29  *  341 


342 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


art  of  composition,  and  well  read  in  the  history  which  they  under- 
take to  criticise.  But  such  topics  should  never  be  undertaken  by 
beginners. 

No  examples  are  needed  under  this  head.  Instead  of  examples,  a  full  list  of 
subjects  is  given,  which  will  aid  the  teacher  in  assigning,  and  the  student  in 
selecting,  topics  for  compositions. 


Miscellaneous  Subjects. 


1.  Hard  for  an  Empty  Box  to 
Stand  Upright ;  or,  the  Temp- 
tations of  Poverty. 

2.  Happiness  more  in  Pursuit  than 
in  Possession. 

3.  A  Rolling  Stone  Gathers  no 
Moss. 

4.  Should  the  Study  of  Latin  be 
Optional  in  an  Institution  Pro- 
fessing to  give  a  Liberal  Edu- 
cation ? 

5.  How  far  should  the  Study  of 
Mathematics  go  in  a  General 
Course  of  Study  for  Young 
Ladies  ? 

6.  Refinement  a  National  Benefit. 

7.  The  Invention  of  the  Tele- 
graph. 

8.  Importance  of  a  Habit  of  Clean- 
liness. 

9.  It  takes  Two  to  Quarrel. 

10.  How  far  should  a  Class  be 
Punished  for  an  Offence  com- 
mitted by  one  of  its  Members, 
which  cannot  be  found  out  ? 

11.  Advantages  and  Disadvan- 
tages of  Marking  Recitations. 

12.  Motives  to  Study. 

13.  It  is  Easier  to  be  Good  than 
to  Seem  Good. 

14.  Familiarity  Breeds  Contempt. 


15.  The  Effect  of  Associating  with 
those  Better  than  Ourselves. 

16.  A  Soft  Answer  Turneth  away 
Wrath. 

17.  Ought  the  two  Sexes  to  be 
Educated  Together  ? 

18.  Present  Tendencies  of  Peri- 
odical Literature. 

19.  The  Influence  of  Pictorial  Il- 
lustrations on  Literary  Taste. 

20.  Necessity  the  Mother  of  In- 
vention. 

21.  Whitewash  —  Morally  Con- 
sidered. 

22.  Duties  of  Scholars  to  Teach- 
ers. 

23.  The  Pleasure  of  Receiving 
Letters. 

24.  The  Character  and  Writings 
of  Mrs.  Sigourney. 

25.  Disadvantages    and    Incon- 
veniences of  Travelling. 

26.  Importance  of  the  Habit  of 
Meditation. 

27.  Habits  of  Neatness. 

28.  The  Causes  and  Evils  of  Fam- 
ily Quarrels. 

29.  Benefits  and  Proper  Methods 
of  Reading. 

30.  Importance  of  forming  Hab- 
its of  Close  Observation. 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS. 


343 


31.  Habits  of  Economy. 

32.  How  Pride  Displays  Itself. 

33.  Duties  to  Schoolmates. 

34.  A  Good  Heart  Necessary  to 
Enjoy  the  Beauties  of  Nature. 

35.  Power  of  Music. 

36.  Respect  to  Superiors. 

37.  Affability  to  Inferiors. 

38.  Importance  of  Perseverance. 

39.  Never  too  Old  to  Learn. 

40.  Does  Climate  Affect  the  Char- 
acter of  People  ? 

41.  A  Sail  up  the  Hudson. 

42.  A  Journey  from  New  York 
to  San  Francisco. 

43.  Innocent  Amusements. 

44.  Skating. 

45.  The  Trials  of  a  Scholar. 

46.  A  Mother's  Influence. 

47.  The  Necessity  of  being  Able 
to  Say  No. 

48.  Dreams. 

49.  The  Influence  of  Fashion. 

50.  Is    it    Expedient    to    Wear 
Mourning  Apparel? 

51.  Over- Anxiety. 

52.  Are  Women  more  given  to 
Revenge  than  Men  ? 

53.  Was  it  Right  to  Execute  Ma- 
jor Andre  ? 

54.  Is  a  Lie  Ever  Justifiable? 

55.  Rome  was  not  Built  in  a  Day. 

56.  Is  Childhood  the  Happiest 
Period  of  Life? 

57.  Early  Rising. 

58.  A  New  Broom  Sweeps  Clean. 

59.  Was  the  Fate  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  Deserved  ? 

60.  On  Parental  Indulgence. 

61.  Influence  of  Cromwell. 


62.  Chaucer  and  His  Age. 

63.  Aristocracy  of  Wealth. 

64.  The  Invention  of  the  Cotton 
Gin. 

65.  The  Art  of  Pleasing. 

66.  Habits  of  the  Dog. 

67.  Good  Effects  of  Ridicule. 

68.  Description  of  a  Valley. 

69.  Habits  of  Courtesy. 

70.  Taste  for  Simple  Pleasures. 

71.  The  Education  of  the  Senses. 

72.  Street  Beggary. 

73.  Is  there  Reason  to  Suppose 
that  other  Planets  are  Inhab- 
ited? 

74.  On  the  Multiplication  of 
Books. 

75.  Comparative  Advantages  of 
City  and  Country  Life. 

76.  The  "Fast "Man. 

77.  Is  Labor   a  Blessing  or  a 
'  Curse? 

78.  Should  the  Truth  Always  be 
Spoken  ? 

79.  One  has  only  to  Die  to  be 
Praised. 

80.  It  is  Hard  to  Swim  Against 
the  Stream. 

81.  Love  Begins  at  Home. 

82.  One  Learns  by  Failing. 

83.  A  Ride  Across  the  Prairies. 

84.  Opening  of  the  Mail. 

85.  The  Ever-Varying  Beauty  of 
the  Clouds. 

86.  The  Occupations  of  the 
Farmer. 

87.  Live  Within  your  Means. 

88.  No  Pains,  no  Gains. 

89.  Poor  Workmen  Find  Fault 
with  their  Tools. 


344 


COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 


90.  Nothing  Venture,   Nothing 
Have. 

91.  One  Good  Turn  Deserves  An- 
other. 

92.  Silence  Gives  Consent. 

93.  It  Never  Rains  but  it  Pours. 

94.  Penny  Wise  and  Pound  Fool- 
ish. 

95.  Look  Before  You  Leap. 

96.  Out  of  Debt,  Out  of  Danger. 

97.  Short  Settlements  Make  Long 
Friends. 

98.  The  Burnt  Child  Dreads  the 
Fire. 

99.  A  Bird  in  the  Hand  is  Worth 
Two  in  the  Bush. 

100.  The  Sweetest  Wine  makes 
the  Sourest  Vinegar. 

101.  Where  there 's  a  Will  there 's 
a  Way. 

102.  Cut  your  Coat  According  to 
your  Cloth. 

103.  Every  Man  is  the  Architect 
of  his  own  Fortune. 

104.  No  Place  Like  Home. 

105.  Self-Praise  no  Commenda- 
tion. 

106.  A  Good  Name  is  Better  Than 
Riches. 

107.  Example  is  More  Powerful 
than  Precept. 

108.  Religion  Tends  to  Make  One 
Cheerful. 

109.  Be  Sure  your  Sin  will  Find 
you  Out. 

110.  Avarice;   or,  the  More  we 
Have,  the  More  we  Want. 

111.  The    Folly    of   Contending 
about  Trifles. 

112.  Busy-bodies. 


113.  An  Argument  Against  the 
Use  of  Profane  Language. 

1 14.  The  Duty  of  Confessing  One's 
Faults. 

115.  Importance  of    Governing 
One's  Temper. 

116.  The  Injurious  Influence  of 
Indulging  in  Slang. 

117.  The  Motives  which  Lead  to 
Flattery. 

118.  Rural  Happiness. 

119.  Moonlight  at  Sea. 

120.  Curiosity. 

121.  The  Learned  Professions. 

122.  Distribution  of  Time. 

123.  Want  and  Plenty. 

124.  Intellectual  Discipline. 

125.  Bad  Effects  of  Ridicule. 

126.  Duties  of  Hospitality. 

127.  The  Study  of   the  French 
Language. 

128.  Delicacy  of  Feeling. 

129.  Taste  for  the  Cultivation  of 
Flowers. 

130.  The  Effects  of  Learning  on 
the  Countenance. 

131.  The    Difference    between 
Beauty  and  Fashion. 

132.  The  Choice  of  a  Profession. 

133.  Correspondence     between 
True  Politeness  and  Religion. 

134.  Health. 

135.  The  Rainbow. 

136.  Evils  of  Public  Life. 

137.  Modesty  a  Sign  of  Merit. 

138.  Art  of  Pleasing. 

139.  Order  and  Confusion. 

140.  Moral  Effects  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture. 

141.  Luxury. 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUBJECTS. 


345 


142.  The  Study  of  Natural  His- 
tory. 

143.  The  Butterfly  and  its 
Changes. 

144.  Local  Associations. 

145.  Parsimony  and  Prodigality. 

146.  The  Seasons. 

147.  Harmony  of  Nature. 

148.  An  Evening  Walk. 

149.  A  Strong  Will  and  a  Strong 
Won't. 

150.  A  Description  of  an  Evening 
Sunset. 

151.  The  Bulls  and  Bears  of  Wall 
Street. 

152.  The  Effect  of  the  Purchase 
of  Alaska. 

153.  Railroad  Corporations. 

154.  The  Uses  of  Ice. 

155.  Excess  in  Novel-Reading. 

156.  Fiction  as  a  Means  of  Incul- 
cating Religious  Truth. 

157.  A  Visit  to  the  Cave  of  ^Eolus. 

158.  Advantages  of  Linguistic 
Studies. 

159.  Advantages  of  Mathematical 
Studies. 

160.  The  Study  of  History. 

161.  Hebrew  Poetry. 

162.  What  Kind  of  Popular 
Amusements  are  Desirable? 

163.  Modes  of  Burial. 

164.  A  Visit  to  Greenwood  Cem- 
etery (Laurel  Hill,  Mount  Au- 
burn, Hollywood,  etc.). 

165.  Should  Children  in  Sunday- 
School  be  Organized  into  Tem- 
perance Societies? 

166.  Effects  of  War  on  National 
Character. 


167.  Epitaphs. 

168.  How  Far  is  it  Right  for  One 
Nation  to  Interfere  in  the  Af- 
fairs of  Another? 

169.  A  Ride  Across  the  Atlantic 
on  a  Cloud. 

170.  Should  norse-Racing  be  Al- 
lowed at  Agricultural  Fairs  ? 

171.  What  I  Saw  in  a  Balloon- 
Ride. 

172.  Characteristics  of  the  Com- 
mon House-Fly. 

173.  The  Good  Old  Times. 

174.  Methods  of  Improving  the 
Memory. 

175.  Topics  for  Conversation  at  a 
Morning  Call. 

176.  Attention  to  Dress. 

177.  The  Personal  and  Domestic 
Character  of  Washington  Ir- 
ving. 

178.  Negro  Minstrelsy  as  a  Pop- 
ular Amusement. 

179.  Wedding  Presents. 

180.  John  Chinaman. 

181.  The  Schoolmaster  Abroad. 

182.  Effect  of  Natural  Scenery 
on  National  Character. 

183.  Influence  of  National  Prov- 
erbs. 

184.  Effect  of  the  Crusades. 

185.  Does  the  Use  of  Tobacco 
Lead  to  the  Use  of  Intoxicating 
Drinks? 

186.  It  Might  Have  Been. 

187.  The  Open  Polar  Sea. 

188.  A  Uniform  System  of 
Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures, 
for  All  Nations. 

189.  Cobwebs. 


346 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


190.  International  Art  Exhibi- 
tions. 

191.  Old  Coins  —  What  they  Tell 
Us. 

192.  Different  Kinds  of  Car- 
pets. 

193.  Learning  to  Spell. 

194.  Spinning  Street-Yarn. 

195.  Every  American  Boy  Ex- 
pects to  be  President. 

196.  Are  Men  or  Women  Most 
Given  to  Gossiping? 

197.  Girls'  Amusements  and 
Boys'  Amusements  Contrasted. 

198.  My  Mother's  Apron-String. 

199.  Agreeing  to  Differ. 

200.  Public  and  Private  Schools 
—  Advantages  and  Disadvan- 
tages of  each. 

201.  Our  Father  Who  art  in 
Heaven. 

202.  I  Told  You  So. 

203.  House-Cleaning. 

204.  People  who  are  Always  Un- 
fortunate. 

205.  The  Difference  Between 
Pride  and  Vanity. 

206.  Gossiping. 

207.  A  Ride  on  an  Iceberg. 

208.  Theory  and  Practice. 

209.  An  Encounter  with  a  Bur- 
glar. 

210.  My  Flower-Garden. 

211.  Letter- Writing. 

212.  Restless  People. 


213.  Nursing  Sorrow. 

214.  The  Dress  is  not  the  Man. 

215.  Silent  Influence. 

216.  The  History  of  a  Pin. 

217.  A  Voyage  to  the  Mediterra- 


218.  Visit  to  a  Lunatic  Asylum. 

219.  Firmness  and  Obstinacy. 

220.  The  Honey-Bee. 

221.  Love  of  Ease. 

222.  Moral  Courage. 

223.  The  Man  of  Talent  and  the 
Man  of  Genius. 

224.  A  Good  Listener. 

225.  A  Good  Talker. 

226.  The  Grace  of  Giving. 

227.  The  Grace  of  Receiving. 

228.  Sketch  of  Aaron  Burr. 

229.  The  Market. 

230.  Love  of  Shopping. 

231.  Attending  Auctions. 

232.  Is  the  Pen  Mightier  than 
the  Sword  ? 

233.  Influence  of  Steam. 

234.  The  Bullet  and  the  Ballot. 

235.  The  Effect  on  the  Household 
of  having  Pictures  and  Works 
of  Art  in  the  House. 

236.  Description  of  a  Country 
Church. 

237.  Does  Poverty  or  Riches  De- 
velop the  Character  best  ? 

238.  Do  not  Visit  your  Neighbor 
so  often  that  he  shall  say,  "  It 
is  Enough." 


CORRECTING    COMPOSITIONS. 


The  labor  of  criticising  and  correcting  Compositions,  particularly  in  large 
schools,  is  very  great;  yet  without  such  criticism  and  correction  much  of  the 
value  of  the  exercise  is  lost.  The  author,  in  his  own  experience  in  this  matter, 
has  found  his  labors  materially  lessened  by  the  use  of  certain  abbreviations  and 
arbitrary  symbols.  General  criticisms,  when  necessary,  are  written  out  in  full 
at  the  bottom  of  the  Composition.  But  criticisms  of  particular  words  or  sentences 
are  made  on  the  margin.  The  abbreviations  for  marking  these  mistakes  are  the 
following : 


sp. 

mistake  in  Spelling. 

tt. 

Tautology. 

pn. 

mistake  in  Punctuation. 

un 

Sentence  Unfinished. 

cp. 

mistake  in  regard  to  Capitals. 

il. 

Illegible. 

gr. 

mistake  in  Grammar. 

tr. 

Transpose. 

di. 

mistake  in  Diction. 

I 

neglect  of  Paragraphing. 

fe 

mistake  in  Figure. 

A 

something  left  out. 

pr. 

mistake  in  use  of  Pronoun. 

0 

no  mistake  observed. 

en. 

mistake  in  Construction. 

! 

positive  merit  worthy  of  note. 

sq. 

Squinting  Construction. 

For  expressing  general  estimates  of  the  character  of  the  piece,  the  following 
symbols  are  sometimes  placed  at  the  end : 

-f  improvement  on  previous  Composition. 

—  a  falling  off. 

X  general  excellence. 

-i-  general  carelessness. 

y  originality  and  research. 

Occasionally  a  passage  contains  something,  meritorious  or  otherwise,  which 
can  best  be  explained  orally.    In  such  cases,  write  on  the  margin 

cl.    Call  for  explanation. 

The  Compositions  should  be  written  legibly,  in  ink,  with  a  margin  for  criti- 
cisms, and  should  not  be  folded ;  and  the  name  of  the  writer  should  be  placed  at 
the  top  of  the  first  page. 

In  marking  a  Composition,  an  estimate  should  first  be  made  of  its  general 
merits  in  reference  to  subject-matter,  style,  and  method  of  treatment.  From  the 
mark  thus  given,  a  deduction  should  be  made  for  each  mistake  noted  on  the 
margin. 

The  abbreviation  on  the  margin  should  be  made  directly  opposite  the  place 
where  each  mistake  occurs,  but  there  should  be  no  mark  on  the  word  itself  that 
is  wrong.  It  should  be  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  scholar  to  find  out  where  the 
mistake  lies,  and  to  make  the  correction  himself.  For  each  correction  thus 
made,  a  suitable  allowance  should  be  made  in  the  final  adjustment  of  the  mark 
for  the  Composition.  This  stimulates  inquiry,  and  makes  the  criticisms  doubly 
valuable. 

347 


%4 


348  PR  0  OF-READING. 

AN  EXAMPLE  OF  A  PROOF-SHEET 

SHOWING  THE  MANNER  IN  WHICH  ERRORS   OF  THE  PRESS  ARE  MARKED  FOB  COR- 
RECTION. 

*    /     Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 

/  /  *  O) 

the  individual  by  wwom  the  art  of  printing  was       / 

first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 

admitting  Peter   Schoeffer  to  be  the  person  3 

who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 

^7       the  art-ef-  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gut- 

c;/     tenbergs/   he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 

*$     the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.    The7/-/ 

'following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,  8     / 

»s_^    by    Jo.     Fred.     Faustus,     of     Aschaffenburg : 

10D  >'  Peter    Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving    J^  -^ 

n\J/     his  master   Fausts  design,  and  being  himself  ***   i&<yu 

12fa   fdesirous\ardentl^)  to  improve  the  art,  found 

out    (by  the    good    providence  of   God)    tho 

13 
method  of   cutting   (ineidendi)   the    characters     j££ 

in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
8//    singly   cast  I    instead   of   bieng    cut      He    pri-  u^'/ 
li\        vately  cut    matrices]    for    the  whole    alphabet:  ais 
Faust  was    so    pleased  with   the  contrivary 
/that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him  hjs^only 
ic  /daughter    Christina    in    marriage    a/promise 3    "&    * 
/which  he  soon  after  performed-A^  18 

M  cm  1 0*ut    there  were    many  dijffifculties    at    first    n(>    |) 
with  these   letters,   as  there    had  been  before  *  0£o??l. 
with* wooden   ones,  tj*e  metal  being  too  soft3 ^a/9 


+ 


to  support  the  fopce  of  the  impression:   but  9^7 

this   defect   was    soon    remedied,    by    mixing 

>  x    *  *  14 

a  substance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently  ^. 
hardened  it/ 

uin<J  waen,  ne  ^dnowecJ  /ti*  <ma*&i  me 


PROOF-READING.  349 

EXPLANATIONS  OP  THE  CORRECTIONS. 

Note. —  The  numbers  refer  to  the  figures  in  the  margin. 

1.  Wrong  Letters  or  Words.  —  A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by  drawing 
a  short  slant  line  through  it,  as  here  through  the  c  in  severel,  making  a  similar  slant 
line  in  the  margin,  and  writing  to  the  left  of  it  the  correct  letter.  A  whole  word,  if 
wrong,  is  corrected  by  drawing  a  line  across  it,  and  writing  the  correct  word  in  the 
margin  opposite. 

2.  Letters  Upside-down.—  A  letter  that  is  upside-down  is  noted  by  drawing  a 
slant  line  through  it,  and  making  in  the  margin  the  mark  here  given. 

3.  Caps,  Small  Caps,  and  Italics.—  If  letters  or  words  are  to  be  altered  from 
one  character  to  another,  it  is  noted  by  drawing  parallel  lines  below  the  letters  or  words 
so  to  be  altered ;  namely,  three  lines  for  Capitals,  two  lines  for  Small  Capitals,  and  one 
line  for  Italics  ;  and  by  writing  in  the  margin  the  word  Caps,  Sm.  Caps,  or  Italics. 

4.  Deleting. —  When  a  word  or  a  letter  is  to  be  taken  out,  make  a  slant  line 
through  it,  and  place  in  the  margin  the  mark  here  given,  which  is  the  old  way  of 
writing  the  letter  d,  and  stands  for  the  Latin  dele,  destroy. 

5.  Changing  Punctuation.—  A  point  is  to  be  corrected  in  the  same  manner  as 
a  letter  (No.  1).  If  the  point  to  be  inserted  is  a  period,  it  should  be  enclosed  in  a 
circle.    (See  example  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.) 

6.  Space  Omitted. —  If  a  space  is  omitted  between  two  words  or  letters,  put  a 
caret  under  the  place  where  the  space  ought  to  be,  and  put  in  the  margin  the  char- 
acter here  given. 

7.  Hyphen  Omitted.  —  If  a  hyphen  has  been  omitted,  put  a  caret  under  the 
place,  and  write  the  hyphen  in  the  margin  between  two  slant  lines. 

8.  Letters  Omitted. —  If  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  put  a  caret  under  the  place, 
and  put  in  the  margin  a  slant  line  with  the  letter  to  the  left  of  it. 

9.  Closing  Up.  —  If  a  line  is  too  widely  spaced,  or  letters  are  separated  that 
should  be  joined,  the  letters  that  are  to  be  brought  together  should  be  connected  by 
a  curved  mark,  either  above  or  below,  or  both,  and  a  corresponding  mark  should  be 
placed  in  the  margin. 

10.  New  Paragraph. —  When  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  put  a  caret  at  the 
place  where  the  new  paragraph  should  begin,  and  a  quadrangle  in  the  margin. 

11.  Apostrophe,  etc.  —  When  the  apostrophe,  inverted  commas,  the  star  and 
other  references,  or  letters  and  figures  of  any  kind  that  go  over  the  line,  have  been 
omitted,  put  a  caret  at  the  place,  and  write  the  omitted  apostrophe  or  other  character 
in  the  margin,  in  the  bosom  of  an  angle  made  for  the  purpose,  and  opening  upwards. 

12.  Transposing. — When  a  word  is  to  be  transposed,  draw  a  line  round  it  and 
carry  the  line  over  to  the  place  where  the  word  is  to  be  put,  writing  in  the  margin  tr. 
(transpose).  If  two  or  three  letters  in  a  word  are  misplaced,  draw  a  line  under  them, 
and  write  them  correctly  in  the  margin.  If  several  words  are  misplaced,  draw  a  line 
under  them  all,  write  over  them  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  to  show  the  order  in  which 
they  should  stand,  and  put  tr.  in  the  margin. 

13.  Stet.— When  by  mistake  a  word  has  been  marked  to  be  struck  out,  and  you  wish 
it  to  stand,  put  a  row  of  dots  under  it,  and  the  word  stet  (let  it  stand)  in  the  margin. 

14.  Space  Projecting.—  When  a  space  (a  thin  slip  of  metal  used  for  spacing) 
projects,  draw  a  line  under  it  and  the  corresponding  mark  in  the  margin. 

15.  Words  Out.  —  When  several  words  have  been  left  out,  write  them  at  the 
foot  of  the  page,  and  draw  a  line  from  them  to  the  place  where  they  should  be  in- 
serted. If  the  matter  omitted  is  too  much  to  be  thus  written  at  the  foot  of  the  page, 
write  on  the  margin  the  words,  Out,  see  copy,  and  write  likewise  on  the  margin  of  the 
copy  the  word  Out,  and  enclose  the  omitted  words  in  brackets. 

16.  L,etters  Standing  Crooked. — The  marks  here  given  show  the  mode. of 
noting  this  defect. 

17.  Wrong  Fount. —  When  a  letter  of  a  different  fount  has  been  inserted,  mark 
it  with  a  slant  line,  and  write  w.f.  (wrong  fount)  in  the  margin. 

18.  No  Paragraph. —  When  a  paragraph  has  been  made  where  none  was  in- 
tended, draw  a  lino  from  the  broken-oft*  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  write  in 
the  margin  No  f . 

19.  Left  Out.— When  a  word  has  been  left  out,  make  a  caret  at  the  place,  and 
write  the  word  in  the  margin. 

20.  Faulty  Letter.—  When  a  letter  is  faulty,  draw  a  cross  under  it,  and  make  a 
small  cross  in  the  margin. 

30 


350  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 


AN  EXAMPLE   OP  A  PROOF-SHEET 

CORRECTED. 

Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered ;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
person  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having 
learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the 
Guttenbergs :  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  Aschaffenburg : 

'  Peter  Schoeffek,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Faust's  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  (incidendi)  the  characters  in 
a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet :  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with  a 
substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it.' 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  STUDY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Rhetoric  is,  from  its  very  nature,  so  closely  connected  with  the 
study  of  Language,  that  I  shall  make  no  apology  for  appending  to 
the  present  treatise  some  remarks  upon  the  English  Language,  giv- 
ing a  general  outline  of  its  origin,  history,  affiliations,  and  charac- 
ter, and  some  suggestions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  its  study  and 
culture  are  to  be  pursued.  These  remarks  are  not  intended  as  a 
part  of  the  text,  to  be  studied  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  class- 
room, but  as  a  matter  of  information  for  those  students  who  may 
not  have  access  to  the  numerous  and  extended  volumes  which  are 
devoted  to  this  particular  subject. 

Linguistics  is  gradually  acquiring  the  consistency  of  a  science. 
If  not  so  definite  as  mathematics  and  other  pure  sciences,  it  has  yet 
made  good  its  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  science,  both  by  the  char- 
acter of  its  methods  and  the  wide  generalizations  which  it  has 
reached.  Languages  have  long,  almost  always  indeed,  been  a  sub- 
ject of  study.  But  one  may  be  an  accomplished  linguist,  reading 
and  speaking  many  tongues,  without  being  an  adept  in  the  science 
of  language.  This  science,  in  its  more  recent  and  exact  form,  differs 
perceptibly  even  from  philology.  The  material,  or  subject-matter 
of  the  science,  is  not  one  language,  or  any  one  class  of  languages, 
ancient  or  modern,  living  or  dead,  but  language  itself,  in  its  entirety. 
Its  methods  are  to  observe,  arrange,  and  classify  all  the  forms  of 
speech  that  are,  or  ever  have  been,  in  use,  and  from  them  to  deduce 
the  necessary  laws  of  speech  for  a  race  constituted  as  the  human 
race  is.  It  aims  to  show  how  language  originated,  that  is,  to  show 
why  we  speak  at  all,  and  why  we  speak  as  we  do ;  to  show  what  is 
the  inner  life  of  language,  and  how  its  changes  are  effected ;  to  trace 

351 


352  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

the  relations  between  language  and  thought;  and,  finally,  as  the 
geologist  is  able  from  existing  phenomena  to  read  the  history  of  the 
globe  far  back  anterior  to  human  records,  so  from  the  existing 
forms  of  speech  to  travel  back  into  the  prehistoric  annals  of  the 
race,  and  to  trace  the  doings  and  the  character  of  races  of  whom 
there  is  no  other  record. 

The  science  of  language,  as  thus  understood,  is  the  youngest  of 
the  sciences,  younger  even  than  geology,  being  yet  hardly  half  a 
century  old.  Among  its  cultivators  are  two  particularly  noticeable 
by  those  of  the  English-speaking  race,  both  as  being  on  the  fore- 
most wave  of  the  advancing  science,  and  as  using  our  language  in 
their  investigations,  and  being,  therefore,  the  more  accessible  to 
English  and  American  students.  These  are  Professor  Max  Miiller, 
of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Professor  Whitney,  of  Yale  Col- 
lege. Professor  Whitney's  book,1  although  it  has  been  but  a  short 
time  before  the  public,  has  already  placed  its  author  in  a  position 
of  most  honorable  distinction  before  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen. 
If  not  so  brilliant  and  fascinating  in  style  as  are  the  volumes  of 
Max  Miiller,2  the  work  is  equally  learned,  and  is  decidedly  more 
sober  and  trustworthy  in  its  conclusions. 

The  recent  contributions  to  the  study  of  English  by  Professor 
Marsh,3  Professor  Scheie  de  Vere,4  Richard  Grant  White,5  and 
Edward  S.  Gould,6  of  this  country,  and  by  Latham,7  Trench,8  Al- 
ford,9  and  Moon,10  in  England,  as  well  as  the  elaborate  reviews 
which  have  appeared  in  nearly  all  the  leading  periodicals  of  both 
countries,  show  that  the  subject  has  awakened  public  attention. 
All  the  works  referred  to  have  been  received  with  marked  favor, 
and  they  have  done  much  towards  making  the  genius  and  resources 
of  our  language  better  understood  by  those  who  use  it.  But  the 
works  of  Professor  Miiller  and  Professor  Whitney,  while  necessa- 
rily dealing  largely  with  English,  and  while  of  great  interest  and 


1.  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language.    By  William  Dwight  Whitney,  Professor 
of  Sanskrit  in  Yale  College.    8vo. 

2.  Science  of  Language,  2  vols. ;  and  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  2  vols. 

3.  The  Origin  and  History  of  the  English  Language.    1  vol.,  8vo.    Lectures  on  the 
English  Language.    By  George  P.  Marsh.    1  vol.,  8vo. 

4.  Studies  in  English.    By  M.  Scheie  de  Vere.    1  vol.,  8vo. 

5.  Words  and  Their  Uses.    By  Richard  Grant  White. 

6.  Good  English.    By  Edward  S.  Gould.    1  vol.,  12mo. 

7.  The  English  Language.    By  R.  G.  Latham. 

8.  English,  Past  and  Present.    By  Richard  Chevenix  Trench. 
The  Study  of  Words.    By  Richard  Chevenix  Trench. 

9.  The  Queen's  English.    By  Henry  Alford,  Dean  of  Canterbury. 
10.  The  Dean's  English.    By  G.  Washington  Moon. 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  353 

value  to  the  mere  student  of  English,  yet  take  a  much  wider  range 
than  those  of  the  other  writers  who  have  been  named.  The  dif- 
ference between  them  is  like  the  difference  between  a  work  on 
general  geology  and  a  work  on  trilobites  or  on  the  carboniferous 
era. 

Having  referred  thus  to  the  principal  sources  of  information  on 
this  subject  which  are  accessible  to  the  English  student,  I  proceed 
to  give  a  brief  outline  of  the  accepted  theory  in  regard  to  the  origin 
and  character  of  the  English  language,  and  of  its  relation  to  the 
other  languages  of  the  earth. 

In  doing  this,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to  take  the  reader  to 
regions  apparently  remote  from  the  topic  named.  But  in  many 
things  a  comprehensive  survey  of  a  whole  subject  is  the  shortest 
way  of  getting  at  a  precise  knowledge  of  a  particular  division  of  it. 
Some  idea  of  the  general  grouping  of  the  languages  of  the  earth  is 
necessary  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  place  which  English 
holds,  both  in  history  and  in  general  philology.  This  is  the  more 
necessary,  because  the  whole  science  of  language  has  been  revolu- 
tionized, or  rather  it  has  been  created,  in  times  within  the  memory 
of  persons  still  living.  The  old  theory,  which  until  lately  nobody 
ever  questioned,  was,  that  the  Hebrew  was  the  original  language  of 
the  earth,  and  that  all  other  languages  in  some  way  sprung  from  it. 
"All  antiquity,"  says  Jerome,  "affirms  that  Hebrew,  in  which  the 
Old  Testament  is  written,  was  the  beginning  of  all  speech."  "When, 
therefore,  attempts  began  to  be  made  at  a  scientific  classification 
of  languages,  the  problem  which  presented  itself  to  scholars  was, 
"  Hebrew,  being  undoubtedly  the  mother  of  all  languages,  how  can 
we  explain  the  process  by  which  it  became  split  into  so  many 
dialects,  and  how  can  we  trace  back  the  words  in  all  the  various 
languages  of  the  world  to  their  original  Hebrew  roots?  The 
amount  of  learning  and  ingenuity  bestowed  upon  the  solution  of 
this  problem  was  prodigious,  and  has  well  been  compared  to  that 
bestowed  by  the  earlier  astronomers  in  undertaking  to  explain  the 
movement  of  the  heavenly  bodies  on  the  assumption  that  the  earth 
was  the  centre  of  the  universe.  The  foundations  of  the  old  theory 
of  language  began  to  be  shaken  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Leibnitz, 
in  1710,  and  primarily  by  Leibnitz  himself.  But  no  great  and  cer- 
tain advance  was  made  in  the  way  of  establishing  a  true  theory, 
until  near  the  close  of  the  last  century.  The  steps  which  then  led 
to  the  discovery  and  the  establishment  of  the  science  of  language, 
30*  X 


354  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

as  now  understood,  originated  in  undertakings  not  by  any  means 
scientific  in  their  aim. 

The  English  East  India  Company,  in  the  government  of  their 
Indian  empire,  have  always  had  in  their  employ  a  number  of  emi- 
nent jurists,  to  act  as  judges  in  the  civil  administration.  These 
judges  early  found  that  the  jurisprudence  which  they  were  called 
upon  to  administer  was  interwoven  with  a  vast  body  of  national 
traditions  of  unknown,  but  certainly  most  venerable  antiquity,  and 
that  to  interpret  these  traditions  rightly,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  old  original  language,  in  which  they 
were  contained.  The  English  and  American  missionaries  in  that 
country  made  a  similar  discovery.  The  people  of  India  were  found 
to  be  in  this  respect  very  much  in  the  condition  of  the  nations 
of  Southern  Europe,  which  have  survived  the  disintegration  of  the 
Eoman  Empire.  As  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  look  to  ancient  Rome 
for  the  basis  both  of  their  several  languages  and  their  system  of 
jurisprudence,  so  in  modern  India  many  nations  and  tribes  were 
found  with  languages  distinct  indeed,  but  closely  affiliated,  and 
having  a  common  basis  in  a  tongue  which  ceased  to  be  spoken  more 
than  two  thousand  years  ago.  This  dead  language,  existing  in  India 
as  the  Latin  does  among  the  nations  of  Southern  Europe,  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Sanscrit. 

The  jurists  and  civilians  of  the  East  India  Company  found,  that 
in  order  to  acquire  the  necessary  authority  as  interpreters  of  Indian 
law,  they  must  acquaint  themselves  with  the  Sanscrit  language. 
The  missionaries  were  obliged  to  study  it  for  a  like  reason.  It  was 
the  only  way  in  which  they  could  obtain  a  hearing  as  instructors 
of  the  people,  or  in  which  they  could,  satisfactorily  to  themselves, 
explain  and  confute  the  system  of  theology  and  philosophy  on  which 
the  vast  superstructure  of  Indian  religion  was  based.  These  two 
classes  of  Europeans,  therefore,  addressed  themselves  with  zeal  to 
the  study  of  this  ancient  tongue.  Their  labors  in  this  line  first  took 
shape  in  the  formation  of  the  Asiatic  Society  at  Calcutta,  in  1784, 
from  which  event,  indeed,  the  history  of  Sanscrit  Philology  as  a 
European  study  may  be  dated.  As  the  results  of  their  studies  were 
transmitted  from  timo  to  time  to  the  learned  of  Western  Europe,  it 
became  gradually  apparent  that  the  facts  disclosed  were  likely  to 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  entire  science  of  philology.  A 
surprising  coincidence,  for  instance,  was  found  between  this  ancient 
language  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  which  had  been  a  dead 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  355 

language  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  and  the  languages  of 
"Western  Europe.  More  surprising  still,  this  language  was  found 
even  more  like  to  the  Latin  and  Greek.  This  coincidence  included 
not  only  a  vast  number  of  words  of  like  meaning,  but  most  wonder- 
ful similarities  in  declensions,  conjugations,  and  syntax.  Gram- 
matical forms  and  constructions  in  Latin  and  Greek,  which  had 
become  anomalous  and  unexplainable  before  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar  and  the  grammarians  of  Alexandria,  were  found  to  be  ex- 
plained by  corresponding  forms  in  Sanscrit,  where  they  existed  in 
a  state  less  impaired,  or  more  fully  developed. 

Such  results  as  these  necessarily  led  to  a  careful  re-examination 
of  the  whole  theory  of  the  affiliation  of  languages.  It  would  not 
comport  with  the  object  of  the  present  article  to  enter  into  a  history 
of  the  investigations  and  discussions  which  followed,  nor  to  state 
the  discrepancies  of  opinion  which  still  exist  among  philologists,  as 
to  the  general  classification  and  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
languages  of  the  earth.  The  examination  of  the  subject  has  led, 
however,  to  some  well-ascertained  results,  in  regard  to  which  the 
learned  are  pretty  much  agreed.  All  the  leading  languages,  from 
the  Himalaya  Mountains  in  Asia,  on  the  east,  to  the  Atlantic  shore 
of  Europe,  on  the  west,  are  found  to  have  numerous  affinities  and 
points  of  resemblance  too  strong  to  be  accounted  for  in  any  other 
way  than  by  supposing  an  historical  and  ethnical  connection.  The 
ethnographical  theory,  by  which  these  extraordinary  analogies  and 
identities  are  explained,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  state  in  the  briefest 
manner  possible.     It  will  be  understood  to  be  the  merest  outline. 

The  principal  nations  embraced  in  the  immense  space  of  longitude 
that  has  been  named,  are  supposed  to  have  all  sprung  originally 
from  the  same  central  hive  in  Asia,  the  precise  location  of  which  it 
is  not  necessary  to  the  theory  either  to  establish  or  assume,  and  to 
have  proceeded  thence,  in  very  early  times,  in  successive  swarms, 
to  the  several  countries  where  they  are  found  within  the  historic 
periods.  These  tides  of  population  are  supposed  to  have  followed 
each  other  at  distant  intervals,  and  to  have  proceeded,  as  migratory 
nomads  usually  do,  in  the  direction  of  their  original  impulse,  until 
the  impulse  was  spent,  or  until  it  met  with  some  obstacle  sufficient 
to  arrest  its  further  progress.  The  earliest  wave  rolling  westwardly 
would  necessarily  be  arrested  by  the  Atlantic,  and  would  eventually 
become  stationary  in  the  regions  along  the  coast,  and  in  the  adjacent 
islands.     The  next  succeeding  wave  in  the  same  direction  would  be 


356  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

compelled  to  pause  on  reaching  the  range  of  countries  occupied  by 
its  predecessor.  The  earliest  easterly  wave  seems  to  have  been 
arrested  by  the  formidable  obstacle  presented  by  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  and  to  have  settled  at  its  feet  among  the  plains  of  Ilin- 
dostan.  So  on  with  the  several  emigrations,  east  and  west,  and 
more  or  less  remote,  until  we  imagine  the  whole  area  occupied  be- 
tween our  two  extreme  points. 

Taking  this  general  idea,  which  is  admitted  to  be  in  the  main 
purely  theoretical,  we  find  the  following  distinct  groups  of  lan- 
guages, marked  off  and  yet  connected  by  well-defined  characters, 
and  by  well-known  and  indisputable  facts. 

I.  The  Indio,  or  the  languages  of  India.  The  ancient  original 
language  of  India  is  the  Sanscrit.  It  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  lan- 
guage at  least  300  B.  0.  Its  earliest  form  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Vedas,  the  most  ancient  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos.  Be- 
tween the  Sanscrit  and  the  present  living  languages  of  India,  are 
two  successive  stages,  or  dialects  (both  however  dead),  namely,  the 
Pali,  containing  sacred  books  less  ancient  than  the  Vedas ;  and  the 
Prakrit,  containing  various  remains,  both  literary  and  religious,  and 
approaching  to  more  modern  times.  The  chief  modern  dialects 
sprung  from  the  above,  but  largely  mixed  with  the  languages  of  the 
successive  conquerors  of  the  country,  are  such  as  the  Hindi,  Hindo- 
stani,  Bengali,  Mahratti,  etc. 

II.  The  Iranio,  the  language  of  Iran,  or  Persia.  The  ancient 
language  of  the  Zoroasters,  or  Fire-worshippers,  the  inhabitants  of 
Persia,  which  was  originally  called  Iran,  is  the  Zend.  Its  earliest 
form  is  in  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  most  ancient  of  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Persians.  Two  stages  of  this  also  are  found,  the  Pehlevi, 
some  centuries  after  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Parsi,  or  old  Persian, 
about  1000  A.  D.  The  chief  living  representatives  of  the  Zend  are 
the  Persian  and  the  Armenian. 

III.  The  Celtic.  The  tribes  found  by  the  Romans  in  Spain,  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  Ireland,  and  in  the  smaller  islands  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  had  certain  remarkable  points  of  coincidence,  showing  them 
all  to  belong  to  the  same  race.  They  are  called  Kelts  or  Celts,  and 
they  have  been  divided  into  two  branches,  the  Cymbric  and  the 
Gaelic.  From  the  Cymbric  branch  are  derived  the  Welsh  (the 
lineal  descendants  of  the  old  Britons),  the  Cornish  (inhabiting 
Cornwall),  and  the  Armorican,  in  the  province  of  Brittany  or 
Armorica  on  the  coast  of  France.     From  the  Gaelic  branch  came 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  357 

the  Erse  or  Irish,  the  Highland  Scotch,  and  the  Manx  on  the  Isle 
of  Man. 

IV.  The  Italic.  With  the  ancient  language  of  this  family,  the 
Latin,  we  are  all  familiar.  The  Roman  power  and  civilization  car- 
ried their  language  into  all  those  provinces  which  were  thoroughly 
subdued.  The  chief  modern  Latin  languages,  or  Romance  languages, 
as  they  are  generally  called,  are  six,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
French,  Wallachian  (spoken  in  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  parts  of 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Bessarabia),  and  the  Romanese  (spoken 
among  the  Grisons  of  Switzerland). 

V.  The  Hellenic.  This  is  represented  by  the  ancient  Greek,  the 
modern  Greek  usually  called  Romaic,  and  perhaps  the  Albanian. 

VI.  The  Teutonic.  The  oldest  of  the  languages  belonging  to  this 
class  is  the  Gothic.  It  became  extinct  in  the  ninth  century.  Ulfilas, 
a  bishop  of  the  Mceso-Goths,  about  A.  D.  350,  translated  the  whole 
of  the  Scriptures,  except  Kings,  into  the  Gothic.  Of  this  transla- 
tion a  considerable  portion  of  the  New  Testament  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  Old,  have  survived,  and  constitute  a  most  important  relic 
of  this  ancient  tongue.  The  modern  Teutonic  languages  may  be 
divided  into  two  distinct  groups,  the  Scandinavian  and  the  Ger- 
manic. The  Scandinavian  includes  the  tribes  north  of  the  Baltic, 
and  is  represented  by  the  Danish,  the  Swedish,  the  Norwegian,  and 
the  Icelandic.  The  Germanic  includes  the  tribes  in  Central  Europe 
south  of  the  Baltic,  and  is  subdivided  into  two  branches,  the  High 
German  and  the  Low  German.  From  this  latter  has  sprung  the 
Hollandish  or  Dutch,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  parent  of  English. 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Italic  and  Hellenic  races  entered 
Europe  south  of  the  Euxine,  following  the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. In  like  manner  the  Teutonic  tribes  are  supposed  to  have 
passed  north  of  the  Euxine,  and  in  the  course  of  their  wanderings 
westerly  to  have  become  gradually  separated  into  two  streams,  part 
verging  north,  to  and  beyond  the  Baltic,  forming  the  Scandinavian 
nations,  and  part  going  more  centrally,  pressing  upon  the  Romans 
on  the  south,  and  upon  the  Celtic  nations  on  the  west.  This,  at  all 
events,  is  the  position  in  which  we  find  them  in  the  times  of  Livy, 
Caesar,  and  Tacitus. 

VII.  Slavonic.  The  last  of  the  great  waves  of  population  that 
we  shall  notice,  the  last  perhaps  in  point  of  time  in  its  western 
exodus,  is  the  Slavonic.  It  is  found  in  the  northeastern  parts  of 
Europe  and  the  conterminous  regions  of  Asia,  pressing  westerly  upon 


358  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

the  Germanic  and  Scandinavian  peoples,  and  southerly  upon  the 
Graaco-Roman.  The  languages  of  this  group  are  very  numerous. 
The  principal  are  the  Russian,  Bulgarian,  Illyrian,  Polish,  Bohemian, 
Lusatian,  Lettish,  Lithuanian,  and  old  Prussian. 

The  seven  groups  of  languages,  that  have  been  thus  briefly  de- 
scribed, form  one  of  several  great  Families  of  Languages  into  which 
the  numerous  varieties  of  human  speech  have  been  divided.  This 
family  has  been  variously  named.  It  has  been  called  the  Japhetic, 
because  the  nations  included  in  it  are  supposed  to  have  descended 
from  Japhet,  one  of  the  sons  of  Noah.  Another  name  is  the  Indo- 
European,  which  is  a  purely  geographical  name,  and  has  been  given 
purposely  to  avoid  mixing  up  the  philological  question  with  the 
ethnical  one.  Of  the  linguistic  affinities,  there  is  no  doubt.  The 
ethnical  connection  has  not  been  so  clearly  established.  Still  an- 
other name  has  been  given  to  the  family,  and  has  been  much  insisted 
on  by  those  eminent  scholars  who  have  pushed  their  inquiries  into 
the  subject  farthest.  This  name  is  the  Aryan.  It  is  so  named  from 
an  ancient  country  in  Central  Asia,  called  Arya  in  the  Sanscrit 
books,  and  known  by  this  title  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
supposed  to  be  the  starting-point  from  which  these  various  nations 
migrated. 

Besides  this  family,  there  are  two  or  three  others,  which  we  need 
not  describe,  as  they  are  not  connected,  except  in  a  most  remote 
degree,  with  our  present  subject.  One  of  these  is  the  Shemitic 
family,  so  called  because  the  nations  embraced  in  it  are  descended 
from  Shem,  the  oldest  son  of  Noah.  The  principal  languages  in- 
cluded in  this  family  are  the  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Syriac,  Chaldee, 
Arabic,  and  Ethiopic.  The  other  families  of  languages  are  not  as 
yet  sufficiently  defined,  and  therefore  need  not  be  named  in  this 
extremely  cursory  review. 

The  English  language,  it  will  be  seen,  bears  intimate  relations  to 
two  of  the  groups  of  the  great  Indo-European  or  Aryan  family, 
namely,  the  Teutonic  and  the  Latin.  More  than  nine-tenths  of 
English  words  are  derived  from  one  or  the  other  of  these  sources. 
At  the  same  time,  there  are  numerous  words  in  English  that  cannot 
be  claimed  as  being  exclusively  either  Teutonic  or  Latin,  but  are 
common  to  both  sources.  Some  words,  indeed,  are  found  running 
through  all  the  seven  groups  of  the  Indo-European  family,  showing 
that  they  existed  before  the  great  dispersion.  A  few  words  are 
found  even  common  both  to  the  Indo-European  and  tho  Shemitic 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  359 

families,  bearing  in  this  fact  a  history  that  carries  us  back  to  the 
ark  itself. 

It  would  be  impossible,  in  such  a  review  as  this,  to  give  the  induc- 
tion of  particulars  that  are  proper  in  the  way  of  illustration  even, 
much  less  of  proof,  of  these  generalizations.  A  very  few  familiar 
examples  will  be  quoted. 

THREE. 

1.  Sans.:  tri. 

2.  Zend:  thri. 

3.  Celt. :  Erse,  tri ;  Welsh,  tri. 

4.  Ital. :  Lat.,  tres,  tria ;  Fr.,  trois ;  It.,  tree ;  Sp.,  tre. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.,  rpeig,  rpia. 

6.  Tent.:  Goth.,  thri;  Ger.,  drei ;  Sw.,  tre;  Dan.,  tre;  Sax., 
threo  thri;  Eng.,  three. 

7.  Slav. :  Russ.,  tri ;  Let.,  tri. 

SEVEN. 

1.  Sans. :  saptan. 

2.  Zend:  haptan  ;  Per.,  heft. 

3.  Celt. :  Welsh,  saith. 

4.  Ital.:  Lat.,  septem;  It.,  sette ;  Sp.,  siete  ;  Fr.,  sept. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.  eirra. 

6.  Teut. :  Goth.,  sibun;  Ger.,  sieben ;  Du.,  zeeven;  Dan.,  syv; 
Sax.,  8eofen  ;  Eng.,  seven. 

7.  Slav.:  Rus.,  sent;  Let.,  septyni. 


FATHEB. 

1.  Sans. :  pitri. 

2.  Zend:  paitar ;  Per.,  pader. 

3.  Celt.:  Ers.,  athair ;  (initial  consonant  elided). 

4.  Ital.:  Lat.,  pater;  It.,  padre;  Sp.,  padre ;  Fr. plre. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.  izarrip. 

6.  Teut.:  Goth.,  mtar;  Ger.,  mter;  Dm.  fader  ;  Dan.  fader;  Sw., 
fader;  Sax.,  faeder.  ;  Eng.,  father. 

7.  Slav,  (doubtful). 

MOTHER. 

1.  Sans. :  matri. 

2.  Zend:  Per.,  mader. 

3.  Celt. :  Ers.,  mathair. 

4.  Ital.:  Lat.,  mater ;  It.,  madre;  Sp.,  madre;  Fr.,  war*. 


360  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.,  fiyrtjp. 

6.  Teut. :  Ger.,  mutter;  Du.,  moeder;  Sw.,  rnoder;  Dan.,  moder; 
Sax.,  moder  ;  Eng.,  mother. 

7.  Slav. :  Rus.,  mat. 

TO   BEAR. 

1.  Sans.:  bri,  bhar-adi. 

2.  Zend:  bairan;  Pers.,  ber. 

3.  Celt. :  Ers.,  bear-adh. 

4.  Ital. :  Lat.,  /ew,  pario,  porto  ;  It.,  portare;  Sp.,  portar  ;  Fr., 
porter. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.  0ep«,  (j>opea)  papa?  (a  thing  borne,  a  burden),  fiapvc. 

6.  Teut.:  Goth.,  bairan;  Ger.,  fiihren;  Du.,  beuren;  Sw.,  foera; 
Dan.,  ftflgre;  Sax.,  bairan;  Eng.  foar. 

7.  Slav. :  Rus.,  fom 

Some  words,  it  is  to  be  observed,  not  only  run  through  the  entire 
Indo-European  or  Japhetic  group,  but  likewise  appear  in  the  She- 
mitic.  Thus  the  numeral  "  seven,"  already  quoted,  is  evidently  con- 
nected with  the  sheba  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Ethiopic, 
and  the  sabata  of  the  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  In  like  manner,  "  bear  " 
seems  to  have  an  etymological  connection  with  the  Hebrew  parah, 
which  means  to  "  bear,"  and  perhaps  with  the  Hebrew  bara,  mean- 
ing "to  create,"  "to  produce,"  "to  bring  forth,"  (comp.  Eng.  bairn, 
that  which  is  born  or  brought  forth.) 

This  word  "bear,"  both  in  its  generic  meaning  of  bearing  a  bur- 
den, and  its  specific  meaning  of  bringing  forth  (as  of  animals,  trees, 
earth,  etc.),  is  probably  more  widely  diffused  than  any  other  word 
to  be  found  in  the  world.  There  is  no  word  of  which  we  would 
feH  it  safer  to  guess  that  it  was  used  by  Noah  himself,  and  that  it 
is  verily  older  than  the  flood. 

Let  us  look  at  a  few  of  its  forms  in  the  English  alone. 

Here  we  have  it  both  as  a  Teutonic  word,  coming  directly  from 
the  Saxon  bceran,  and  as  a  Latin  word,  in  its  three  several  forms  of 
fero,  pario,  and  porto. 

First,  let  us  enumerate  some  of  the  forms  of  Teutonic  origin. 

Bear,  bearing,  bearer,  bearable,  bearably,  bier ;  forbear,  forbear- 
ing, forbearingly,  forbearance ;  over-bear,  over-bearing,  over-bear- 
ingly;  bore,  over-bore,  for-bore;  borne,  over-borne,  for-borne; 
born,  bairn,  birth ;  burden,  burdening,  burdened,  burdensome,  bur- 


THE   ENGLISn  LANGUAGE.  361 

densomely,  burdensomeness ;  over-burden,  over-burdening,  overbur- 
dened, unburden,  unburdening,  etc. 

From  the  Latin/m>,  we  have  fertile  (bearing  freely,  productive), 
fertility,  fertilize,  fertilization,  fertilizer,  fertilizing,  fertilized.  Fors 
(forts)  comes  from  fero,  as  the  Greek  qopriov  from  <pepo,  rpmrng  from 
Tpeira.  Fors,fortis  (whatever  bears  or  brings  itself  along,  cliance) 
gives  us  fortune,  fortuning,  fortuned,  fortunate,  fortunately,  for- 
tuneless; unfortunate,  unfortunately;  misfortune;  fortuitous,  for- 
tuitously, fortuity.  Fortis  (that  which  bears  everything  before  it, 
strong,  orave)  gives  us  forte;  fort,  fortlet,  fortalice,  fortress;  forti- 
tude, fortify,  fortifying,  fortified ;  force,  forcing,  forced,  forcer,  force- 
less, forceful,  forcefully,  forcible,  forcibly;  enforce,  enforcing,  en- 
forced, enforcement;  reinforce,  reinforcing,  reinforced,  reinforce- 
ment. There  is  some  connection  evidently  between  fero,  to  bear, 
and  ferry,  to  bear  across  a  stream ;  hence  we  have  ferry,  ferrying, 
ferried,  ferriage,  ferryman,  etc.  Fer  as  an  adjective  termination, 
in  conjunction  with  ous,  is  compounded  with  many  hundreds  of 
Latin  nouns,  giving  rise  to  such  words  as  somniferous,  noctiferous, 
odoriferous,  pestiferous,  vociferous,  etc.,  some  of  which  again  origi- 
nate a  new  progeny,  as  vociferous,  vociferously,  vociferate,  vocifer- 
ating, vociferated,  vociferation,  etc.,  etc. 

Fero,  in  composition  with  the  Latin  prepositions,  gives  a  still  more 
prolific  progeny  of  words;  as, 

Circum-/<?r-ence,  circumferential,  circumferentor. 

Con-fer,  conferring,  conferred,  conference,  conferrer,  conferee. 

De-fer,  deferring,  deferred,  deference,  deferential,  deferentially. 

Dif-fer,  differing,  differed,  different,  indifferent,  differently,  indif- 
ferently, difference,  indifference,  differentiate,  differentiating,  dif- 
ferentiated. 

Infer,  inferring,  inferred,  inferrible,  inference,  inferential,  infer- 
entially. 

Of-fer,  offering,  offered,  offerer,  offertory. 

Fre-fer,  preferring,  preferred,  preferrer,  preferment,  preference, 
preferable,  preferably,  preferableness. 

Frof-fer,  proffering,  proffered,  profferer. 

Re-/<?r,  referring,  referred,  referee,  referrible,  reference. 

Suf-fer,  suffering,  suffered,  sufferer,  sufferance,  sufferable,  suffer- 
ably,  insufferably. 

Tnms-fer,  transferring,  transferred,  transferrer,  transferee,  trans- 
ference, transferrible,  intransferrible. 
31 


362  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

The  connection  between  fer-o,  and  par-\o,  to  bring  forth  or  bear, 
may  not  be  obvious  at  first  sight;  but  the  words  are  not  more  re- 
moved than  are  (iapoq  and  <pepu  in  the  Greek,  in  which  case  the 
connection  is  generally  admitted.  As  the  identity  of  the  stem  de- 
pends upon  its  consonantal  elements,  the  substitution  of  p  for  /  is 
the  only  material  change  in  passing  from  fer  to  the  stem  par,  or  per 
(par-\o,  pe-per-it),  and  no  etymological  law  is  better  established 
than  the  interchangeability  of  the  labials^?,  &,/,  and  v.  The  same 
applies  to  por-to,  to  carry,  to  bear. 

If  these  two  words  be  admitted  to  belong  to  the  group,  we  have 
from  par-\o,  parent,  parentage,  parental,  parentally,  parentless, 
parturient,  parturition,  and  very  numerous  compounds,  such  as  vivi- 
parous, oviparous,  etc.  From  por-to,  to  carry,  we  have  port,  porte, 
portico,  porch,  porter,  portly,  portal,  portage,  portliness,  portable, 
portableness,  besides  the  compounds  portmanteau,  portfolio,  etc., 
etc.  Besides  these,  we  have  also  the  various  prepositional  com- 
pounds, com-port,  de-port,  ex -port,  im-port,  re-port,  sup-port,  trans- 
port, each  of  which  gives  birth  to  a  numerous  family,  which  need 
not  be  enumerated,  as  they  are  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
derivatives  of  con-fer,  de-fer,  etc.,  already  given. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  pursue  the  illustration  further.  From  a 
careful  count,  I  suppose  there  are  in  the  English  language  alone, 
not  less  than  four  hundred  and  fifty  words,  dependent  upon  this  one 
stem,  in  no  one  of  which  is  the  meaning  of  the  primary  root  entirely 
lost. 

What  the  count  might  be,  if  carried  through  each  of  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Indo-European  family,  to  say  nothing  of  the  numer- 
ous traces  of  it  in  the  Shemitic  family,  I  am  unable  to  say.  It  cer- 
tainly reaches  many  tens  of  thousands. 

One  other  remark  before  we  leave  this  subject,  In  treating  of 
such  a  class  of  words,  it  is  obviously  proper  to  say,  first,  that  fer- 
tile, confer,  defer,  etc.,  are  derived  from  the  Latin  fero;  secondly, 
that  bear,  burden,  borne,  born,  birth,  etc.,  are  derived  from  the 
Sax.  Jacran.  But  it  is  not  proper  to  3ay  that  baeran  and  its  deriv- 
atives come  from  fero,  or  that  fero  and  its  derivatives  come  from 
baeran.  The  two  (fero  and  baeran)  are  independent  of  each  other, 
and  yet  they  are  mutually  related.  The  generic  stem,  which  per- 
vades them  all,  is  not  strictly  a  Teutonic  word,  or  a  Latin  word, 
but  an  Indo-European  word. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  outline,  showing  what  is  meant  by 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  363 

the  Indo-European  family  of  languages,  with  a  few  examples  in 
illustration  of  the  theory,  we  will  pass  briefly  in  review  some  of 
those  historical  facts  which  show  more  particularly  the  exact  place 
of  the  English  language  in  this  family. 

According  to  the  theory,  then,  the  first  of  the  great  waves  of 
population  that  rolled  westward  from  Central  Asia,  was  the  Celtic 
race.  At  what  particular  time  this  great  emigration  took  place, 
we  know  not.  We  only  know  that  it  was  many  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era.  The  Celts,  or  Kelts,  appear  to  have  been  origin- 
ally nomadic  in  their  character,  and  to  have  journeyed  westerly, 
or  to  have  been  driven  westerly  by  the  Teutons  or  some  succeed- 
ing race,  through  Central  Europe,  until  their  further  progress  was 
arrested  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  "We  find  remains  of  this  race  all 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Europe,  though  they  were  chiefly  con- 
gregated in  Spain,  Gaul,  Britain,  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  Latin  or  Roman  race,  shortly  before  the  Christian  era,  ex- 
tended their  dominion  northward  from  Italy,  until  they  had  subdued 
nearly  all  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Celtic  race.  In  Spain,  and 
in  Gaul  (or  France),  this  dominion  was  so  complete,  that  those 
countries  became  integral  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Not  only 
Roman  laws  and  customs  were  introduced,  but  a  Roman  population 
extended  itself  into  those  provinces,  and  intermingled  largely  with 
the  original  population,  so  that  finally  the  Roman  or  Latin  lan- 
guage was  substituted  for  the  original  Celtic  throughout  the  prov- 
inces of  Gaul  and  Spain. 

In  the  year  55  B.  C,  the  Romans,  under  Julius  Caesar,  passed 
from  Gaul  to  Great  Britain.  From  that  time  until  426  A.  D.,  a 
period  of  nearly  five  centuries,  the  Romans  continued  to  regard 
Great  Britain  as  a  part  of  their  empire. 

At  length,  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Teutonic 
or  Germanic  race,  then  occupying  Eastern  and  Central  Europe, 
under  various  names,  as  Goths,  Vandals,  Franks,  etc.,  began  to  be 
agitated  by  a  great  and  steady  impulse  southward  and  westward. 
These  fierce  northern  barbarians  precipitated  themselves  with  fear- 
ful violence  upon  the  now  corrupt  and  imbecile  Roman  provinces. 
The  Roman  Empire,  tottering  to  its  fall  under  these  repeated 
assaults,  was  obliged  to  withdraw  its  forces  from  the  distant  prov- 
inces for  the  defence  of  the  imperial  city  itself.  The  Roman 
legions  were  finally  withdrawn  from  Great  Britain  in  the  year 
426  A.  D.,  just  481  years  after  the  invasion  of   Coasar,  and  the 


364  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

native  Britons  were  left  thenceforth  to  defend  themselves,  as  they 
best  might,  from  the  barbarians  that  on  all  sides  threatened  them. 

The  Roman  occupation  of  Great  Britain  differed  materially  from 
their  occupation  of  Gaul  and  Spain.  These  latter  countries  were 
thoroughly  subdued  and  made  part  of  the  great  Roman  common- 
wealth, almost  as  much  so  as  was  Italy  itself.  They  were  Roman- 
ized or  Latinized  almost  as  thoroughly  as  Louisiana  is  now  Amer- 
icanized. But  in  Britain  the  case  was  different.  The  Romans 
there  held  at  best  only  a  military  occupation.  They  maintained 
one  or  more  legions  in  the  island.  They  constructed  roads,  they 
fortified  camps,  and  had,  of  course,  considerable  commerce  with 
the  natives.  But  the  Roman  people  themselves  never  settled  in 
great  numbers  in  the  island. 

The  connection  between  the  Romans  and  the  Britons  was  some- 
what similar  to  that  between  the  present  English  and  the  natives  of 
India.  There  was  a  state  of  military  subjugation,  and,  to  some  ex- 
tent, of  civil  administration  and  government;  but  there  was  no 
general  intermixing  and  fusion  of  races.  There  was  no  extension 
of  the  language  of  the  conquerors  over  the  region  of  the  conquered. 
On  the  final  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions,  in  the  fifth  century, 
the  original  Britons  are  found  to  have  retained  hardly  any  traces  of 
the  Roman  or  Latin  language.  It  is  asserted  that  less  than  a  dozen 
words  altogether  remain  upon  the  island,  as  the  result  of  these  five 
centuries  of  military  occupation,  and  these  few  words  are  so  much 
corrupted  as  to  be  with  difficulty  recognized. 

Among  the  Latin  words  left  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Romans,  may 
be  mentioned,  by  way  of  illustration,  the  proper  name  Chester,  both 
as  occurring  by  itself,  and  as  a  part  of  many  compounds,  such  as 
West-Chester,  Win-Chester,  Chi-Chester,  Col-Chester,  etc.  Chester 
is  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  word  castra,  a  fortified  camp.  These 
fortified  camps  of  the  Romans,  in  the  distant  provinces,  were  often 
permanent  establishments,  remaining  in  the  same  place  for  a  series 
of  years.  Of  course,  the  natives  resorted  to  these  camps  for  the 
purpose  of  traffic,  bringing  for  sale  provisions,  clothing,  and  what- 
ever else  was  needed  for  the  support  of  the  soldiery.  Booths  were 
erected,  then  huts,  and  finally  more  settled  habitations,  arranged  in 
rows,  or  streets,  and  so  each  camp,  "castra,"  or  "  Chester,"  became 
the  nucleus  of  a  town,  giving  us  Westchester,  Manchester,  Grant- 
chester,  and  all  the  other  Cheaters. 

The  Latin  words,  however,  that  were  left  in  Great  Britain  by  the 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  365 

Romans,  as  the  result  of  this  early  occupation  of  the  island,  are  very- 
few  in  comparison  with  the  whole  number  of  Latin  words  that  now 
exist  in  English.  We  know  not  how  many  Latin  words  we  now  have 
in  English,  certainly  not  less  than  thirty  thousand.  But  this  vast 
number  was  not  introduced  by  the  Roman  conquest.  Not  a  hundred 
altogether  are  found  that  came  in  as  the  result  of  that  event,  and 
those  few  are,  like  the  word  Chester,  so  much  altered,  as  scarcely  to 
be  recognized.  The  large  ingredient  of  Latin  words  now  existing  in 
English,  is  to  be  attributed  to  causes  of  much  later  date,  some  of 
them  indeed  coming  down  to  the  present  day.  Of  these  I  shall 
speak  more  fully  a  few  pages  farther  on. 

The  year  451  A.  D.  is  generally  assigned  as  the  date  of  an  event 
that  has  affected,  more  than  all  other  causes,  the  destiny  of  Great 
Britain.  This  was  the  coming  of  the  Saxons,  under  the  two  brothers 
Hengist  and  Horsa. 

The  Saxons  were  a  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  race.  They 
lived  along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  in  the  countries  now 
known  as  Holland,  Jutland,  Hanover,  Sleswick,  Holstein,  etc.,  ex- 
tending from  the  Rhine  to  the  Vistula.  Their  position  along  the  coast 
of  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  and  the  numerous  bays,  creeks,  and 
rivers  with  which  that  coast  is  indented,  determined  in  a  great 
measure  their  occupation,  and  separated  them  perceptibly,  both  in 
character  and  destiny,  from  their  Teutonic  brethren  of  the  forests 
of  Central  Germany.  They  were  the  navigators  of  their  age.  They 
spent  their  lives  almost  entirely  upon  the  waves.  Bold,  buccaneer- 
ing, and  piratical,  they  were  the  terror  equally  of  the  Roman  and 
the  Celt. 

The  various  tribes  of  this  race  were  known  by  different  names. 
Those  with  which  history  is  most  familiar  are  the  Jutes,  the  Angles, 
and  the  Saxons.  That  part  of  Britain  which  was  settled  by  the 
Angles  was  called  Angle-land,  changed  afterwards  into  "Engle  land," 
and  then  into  England.  This  name,  applied  primarily  to  a  single 
province,  was  ultimately  extended  to  the  whole  country.  The  com- 
pound term,  "Anglo-Saxons,"  taken  from  the  two  most  notorious 
of  the  piratical  tribes,  and  used  as  a  convenient  abbreviation  for 
"Angles  and  Saxons,"  is  the  name  generally  given  by  historians 
to  all  those  of  the  race  that  settled  on  the  island  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Saxons  did  not  come  into  Britain  all  at  one  time,  or  in  one 
body.  Their  first  arrival  was  under  Hengist  and  Horsa,  A.  D.  451. 
One  part  of  the  race  having  obtained  a  secure  foothold  in  the  island, 
31* 


366  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

other  swarms  followed  from  time  to  time,  for  several  hundred  years. 
In  the  year  827,  nearly  four  centuries  after  the  first  settlement,  seven 
independent  Saxon  kingdoms  had  been  established  in  the  island, 
which  were  then  united  under  one  government,  known  as  the  Saxon 
Heptarchy. 

The  policy  of  the  Saxons  in  Britain  differed  entirely  from  that  of 
the  Romans.  The  Romans  had  merely  a  military  occupation  of  the 
island.  They  held  it  in  subjection  by  their  legions,  and  when  those 
legions  were  withdrawn,  the  native  Britons  remained  on  the  same 
soil  where  Caesar  found  them,  improved  and  civilized  indeed  by  con- 
tact with  the  Romans,  but  still  unmixed  as  to  race,  and  uncorrupted 
as  to  language.  The  Saxons  came  with  a  far  different  purpose,  and 
in  a  far  different  manner.  The  Saxons  took,  not  military,  but  popu- 
lar occupation  of  the  island.  They  came,  not  as  an  army  merely, 
but  as  a  people.  They  came,  not  to  conquer  merely,  but  to  settle. 
They  made  England  their  headquarters,  their  home.  Their  policy, 
therefore,  was  one  of  extermination.  The  Romans  held  the  Britons 
in  subjection.  The  Saxons  butchered  them,  or  drove  them  out.  The 
Roman  soldiery  and  the  Britons  covered  the  same  area  of  territory, 
mingling  freely  together.  The  Saxons  wanted,  not  subjects,  but 
soil.  The  conflict,  therefore,  between  these  two  races  was  one  of 
the  bloodiest  upon  record.  The  result  was  the  expulsion,  almost  the 
extermination,  of  the  feebler  race.  When  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  was 
fully  established,  the  great  mass  of  the  native  Britons  had  been  liter- 
ally butchered.  Of  those  that  survived  this  fate,  some  few  had  set- 
tled in  Armorica  or  Brittany,  on  the  coast  of  France,  but  the  great 
majority  had  taken  refuge  in  the  secluded  and  inaccessible  mountain 
fastnesses  of  Wales,  where  they  remain  as  a  distinct  race  to  this  day. 
The  Welsh  of  the  present  day  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Britons. 

The  most  striking  evidence  of  the  extent  to  which  this  extermi- 
nating policy  of  the  Saxons  was  carried,  is  to  be  found  in  the  lan- 
guage. Had  the  Saxons  come  into  the  island  as  the  Romans  did,  and 
mingled  with  the  natives,  even  though  it  had  been  as  conquerors,  the 
original  British  or  Celtic  language  would  have  remained  substantially 
unchanged,  or,  at  most,  there  would  have  been  a  mixture  of  the  two 
languages —  the  British  or  Celtic,  and  the  Saxon.  So  far  is  this, 
however,  from  the  fact,  that  after  the  Saxon  conquest  was  completed, 
there  remained  upon  the  soil  scarcely  a  vestige  of  the  original  lan- 
guage of  the  island.    According  to  Latham,  the  only  common  names 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  367 

retained  in  current  use  from  the  original  Celtic  of  Great  Britain  are 
the  following:  basket,  barrow,  button,  bran,  clout,  crock,  crook, 
cock,  gusset,  kiln,  dainty,  darn,  tender,  fleam,  flaw,  funnel,  gyve,  grid 
(in  gridiron),  gruel,  welt,  wicket,  gown,  wire,  mesh,  mattock,  mop, 
rail,  rasher,  rug,  solder,  size,  tackle. 

I  know  of  but  one  instance  in  history  of  an  extermination  so 
complete,  and  that  is,  of  the  Indian  race  who  originally  occupied 
this  country,  and  whose  fate  presents  a  curious  parallel  to  that  of 
the  ancient  Britons.  As  there  now  linger  among  our  hills  and  val- 
leys a  few  Indian  words  which  we  have  adopted  and  anglicized,  such 
as  tomato,  potato,  tobacco,  calumet,  wigwam,  tomahawk,  hominy, 
mush,  samp,  moccasin,  etc.,  so  among  the  Saxons,  after  their  bloody 
work  was  over,  there  remained  a  few  of  the  words  of  the  old  Brit- 
ons. As  the  remains  of  the  Indian  tribes  are  now  gathered  into  a 
body  in  the  West,  where  they  retain  and  keep  alive  their  native  dia- 
lects, so  the  remnants  of  the  miserable  Britons  were  collected  into 
the  western  part  of  England,  in  what  is  now  the  Principality  of 
Wales,  where  they  retain  with  great  tenacity  their  ancient  language 
and  many  of  their  ancient  customs. 

The  original  language  of  Briton,  then,  the  old  British  or  Celtic 
language,  that  which  was  spoken  by  the  half-naked  savages  that 
Caesar  saw,  still  exists.  It  is  a  living,  spoken  language.  But  it  is 
not  our  language.  Though  spoken  in  parts  of  England,  it  is  not 
the  English  language.  It  is  not  that  with  which  we  are  materially 
concerned  in  our  present  inquiry.  We,  Englishmen  and  Americans, 
are  lineal  descendants  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  our  language  is 
the  Saxon  language.  The  English  language,  whose  history  we  are 
now  sketching,  though  it  has  received  large  admixtures  from  vari- 
ous sources,  is  in  the  main  the  same  that  was  spoken  by  Hengist 
and  Horsa,  and  by  their  countrymen  along  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Baltic,  before  their  arrival  in  England  in  the  fifth  century. 

During  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  the  Saxons  in  their  turn 
were  invaded  by  the  Danes.  The  Danish  invasion,  however,  does 
not  assume  much  importance  in  giving  the  history  of  the  language, 
because  the  Danes,  although  for  a  time  victorious,  were  finally  ex- 
pelled, leaving  the  Saxons  in  possession  of  the  country.  The  Danes, 
moreover,  were  of  a  race  cognate  to  the  Saxons,  and  their  language 
belonged  to  the  same  group  of  languages.  A  considerable  number 
of  Danish  words  were  retained  in  the  island,  and  have  been  incor- 
porated into  the  language.     They  are  not,  however,  so  numerous, 


363  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

nor  do  they  differ  so  much  from  the  Saxon  words,  as  to  make  any 
special  consideration  of  them  necessary. 

The  first  historical  event  which  impaired  seriously  the  integrity 
of  the  language,  was  the  Norman  conquest.  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, generally  known  as  William  the  Conqueror,  invaded  England, 
A.  D.  1066,  and  by  the  decisive  battle  of  Hastings  routed  the  Sax- 
ons, and  gained  the  English  throne.  By  this  event  the  Normans 
became,  and  continued  to  be,  the  governing  race  in  England.  Let  .- 
us  trace  briefly  the  influence  of  this  event  upon  the  language. 

The  policy  of  the  Normans  differed  both  from  that  of  the  Romans 
and  that  of  the  Saxons,  and  it  was  this  difference  of  policy  that 
caused  such  a  difference  in  the  effect  upon  the  language.  The  Nor- 
mans did  not,  like  the  Romans,  merely  send  over  an  army  to  subju- 
gate, but  came  over  as  a  people  to  occupy.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
did  not,  like  the  Saxons,  exterminate  the  conquered,  but  sought  to 
keep  them  on  the  soil  as  a  subject  and  servile  race.  William  divided 
the  island  among  his  followers,  giving  to  each  a  portion  of  territory, 
and  of  the  Saxon  population  which  was  upon  it.  In  this  manner, 
two  races  were  diffused,  side  by  side,  over  the  surface  of  the  island, 
and  kept  in  constant  juxtaposition.  The  effect  of  this  continued 
contact  between  the  two  races  soon  became  apparent. 

The  Normans  were  superior  to  the  conquered  race  in  military 
skill,  but  were  greatly  inferior  in  numbers.  They  sought,  there- 
fore, to  perpetuate  their  authority  by  depressing  the  social  and 
political  condition  of  the  Saxons.  They  introduced  Norman  laws 
and  customs.  None  but  Normans  were  appointed  to  any  important 
office,  either  in  church  or  state.  Above  all,  a  strenuous  attempt 
was  made  to  spread  the  Norman  language  throughout  the  island. 
No  other  language  was  spoken  at  court,  or  in  camp,  in  parliament, 
in  the  baronial  hall,  or  in  the  lady's  boudoir.  In  this  language  the 
laws  were  written,  and  judicial  proceedings  were  conducted.  No 
civil  contract  was  binding,  no  man  could  sue  or  be  sued,  no  right 
could  be  enforced,  and  no  favor  won,  except  in  the  language  of  the 
governing  race.  The  first  step  to  every  Saxon  serf,  who  wished  to  rise 
from  his  state  of  inferiority  and  servitude,  was  to  forget  his  native 
language,  and  train  his  tongue  to  the  accents  of  his  foreign  masters. 

But  the  laws  of  nature  are  stronger  than  the  laws  of  man.  The 
Normans  attempted  an  impossibility.  It  is  impossible  for  two  races 
to  maintain  permanently  a  separate  existence,  when  kept  in  constant 
contact  and  juxtaposition,  as  were  the  Normans  and  the  Saxons.     A 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  369 

mingling  of  race  is  sooner  or  later  the  uniform  and  inevitable  result. 
So  it  was  here.  The  Saxons  gradually  intermarried  with  the  Nor- 
mans, and  rose  to  an  equality  of  legal  rights  and  social  position. 
With  the  elevation  of  the  race,  the  Saxon  language  resumed  its  right- 
ful position.  It  had  always  been  the  language  of  the  masses,  while 
the  Norman  had  been  spoken  only  by  the  governing  few.  When 
two  races  become  thus  blended  into  one  people,  they  cannot  long 
continue  to  speak  different  languages.  In  this  case,  the  Saxon,  as 
being  the  language  of  the  many,  displaced  the  Norman,  which  was 
the  language  of  the  few,  notwithstanding  all  the  weight  of  authority 
and  fashion  that  had  been  exerted  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  no  changes  in 
the  language  occurred  during  this  fiery  ordeal.  As  there  was  a 
mingling  of  race,  so  there  was  to  some  extent  a  mingling  of  language. 
If  we  take  a  survey  of  the  authors  that  wrote  two  or  three  cen- 
turies after  the  conquest,  we  find,  not  the  pure  Saxon  of  Alfred  and 
Csedmon,  nor  yet  the  Norman  parlance  of  William  and  his  barons, 
but  a  mixed  language,  like  the  race,  predominantly  indeed  Saxon, 
but  with  a  large  foreign  ingredient.  This  mixed  language  is  our 
modern  English.  Its  main  element  is  Saxon.  But  it  has  another 
element,  amounting  now  to  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole,  the  first 
introduction  of  which  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  Norman  conquest. 

But  who  were  the  Normans,  and  what  was  their  language  ?  The 
word  M  Norman  "  is  a  corruption  of  Northman.  The  "  Northmen  " 
were  the  inhabitants  of  the  ancient  Scandinavia,  that  is  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark.  They  were,  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies, precisely  what  the  Saxons  had  been  in  the  fifth  century. 
The  Saxons,  after  their  establishment  in  Great  Britain,  had  been 
converted  to  Christianity,  had  acquired  the  arts  of  peace,  and  be- 
come comparatively  civilized.  The  Northmen  were  still  unlettered 
pagans,  whose  home  was  in  their  ships,  and  whose  whole  life  was 
warfare.  For  the  greater  part  of  two  centuries,  they  ravaged  all 
the  more  civilized  countries  of  Europe  bordering  upon  the  coast, 
until  their  very  name  was  a  terror.  Eollo,  a  leader  of  one  of  those 
adventurous  bands,  penetrated  into  the  very  heart  of  France,  and 
finally  obliged  the  king  to  cede  to  him  and  his  followers  an  en- 
tire province,  amounting  to  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  kingdom. 
This  province,  thus  ceded,  A.  D.  912,  to  the  victorious  Northmen, 
or  Normans,  was  thenceforward  called  Normandy. 

Rollo  and  his  followers  were  comparatively  few  in  numbers. 

Y. 


370  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

They  gradually  intermarried  with  their  subjects  in  the  province 
which  had  been  assigned  to  them,  and  adopted  their  manners,  re- 
ligion, and  language.  In  less  than  a  century  after  the  advefet  of 
Rollo,  his  descendants  in  Normandy  were,  as  to  language,  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  other  Frenchmen.  But  the  French  language,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  in  the  main  that  introduced  into  the  province  of  Gaul 
by  the  Romans.  It  is,  in  short,  a  corrupt  form  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage ;  and  the  Norman-French  is  the  same  as  other  French,  only 
with  the  addition  of  some  northern  or  Scandinavian  words,  which  the 
descendants  of  Rollo  retained  after  their  settlement  in  Normandy-..' 

The  Norman-French,  therefore,  which  William  the  Conqueror 
tried  to  introduce  into. England,  was  mainly  a  Latin  language.  The 
Normans  did  not  eventually  succeed  in  displacing  our  native  Saxon, 
but  they  did  succeed  in  introducing  into  it  a  large  number  of  Nor- 
man-French words,  and  these  Norman-French  words,  introduced 
into  English  after  the  Conquest,  are  generally  words  of  Latin  origin. 
These  Latin  words,  thus  introduced  through  the  Norman-French,  con- 
stitute the  first  important  item  in  the  Latin  element  of  the  language. 

The  importance  of  the  Norman  conquest, ;in  its  influence  upon  the 
language,  is  not  to  be  estimated  by  the  actual  number  of  words  then' 
introduced.  In  point  of  fact,  much  the  larger  number  of  Latin  words 
have  been  brought  into  the  language  since  that  time,  and  by  other 
causes.  The  chief  effect  of  the  Conquest  in  this  respect  was,  first, 
that  it  broke  down  the  old  grammatical  inflections,  which  constituted 
a  dividing  wall  between  the  two  languages,  and,  secondly,  that  it 
created  the  tendency  to  adopt  foreign  words.  There  is  in  all  nations 
naturally  a  strong  aversion  to  the  adoption  of  foreign  terms.  The 
natural  and  spontaneous  disposition,  when  a  new  word  is  wanted,  is 
to  make  it  out  of  roots  or  stems  already  existing  in  the  language,  and 
by  modes  of  combination  with  which  the  popular  ear  is  familiar. 
The  terrible  shock  of  the  Conquest,  and  the  wholesale  use  of  foreign 
words  to  which  the  people  thereby  became  accustomed,  overcame  this 
natural  dislike,  and  opened  a  wide  door  through  succeeding  centu- 
ries for  a  continued  influx  of  Latin  words  from  a  variety  of  sources. 

The  extent  of  this  influx  may  be  estimated,  if  we  call  to  mind  that 
England,  both  from  its  position  and  from  its  natural  policy,  has 
always  maintained  the  closest  commercial  relations  with  the  nations 
of  Southern  Europe,  and  that  those  nations,  the  French,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  and  Italian,  all  speak  languages  that  have  descended 
directly  from  the  Latin,  and  that  have  consequently  the  closest 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  371 

affinity  with  each  other.  The  Norman  conquest  having  brought  a 
large  number  of  Latin  words  into  the  language,  and  having  opened 
permanently  the  door  for  the  introduction  of  others,  by  overcoming 
the  national  prejudice  on  the  subject,  and  by  making  such  foreign 
importations  fashionable  and  popular,  there  has  been  ever  since  an 
uninterrupted  stream  of  Latin  words  setting  in  upon  us,  like  a  tide 
that  knows  no  ebb.  Whenever,  in  the  progress  of  commerce  or  of 
the  arts,  it  has  become  necessary  to  have  new  words  for  the  expres- 
sion of  new  wants,  or  new  ideas,  instead  of  making  these  new  words 
by  a  process  of  home  manufacture,  we  have  resorted  to  the  easy 
credit  system  of  borrowing  them  from  our  neighbors.  Almost 
every  musical  term  in  the  language  has  been  taken  from  the  Italian, 
most  of  our  terms  of  etiquette  and  punctilio  from  the  Spanish,  and 
the  entire  nomenclature  of  cookery,  dress,  and  fashion  from  the 
French.  Italian  singers  and  fiddlers,  and  Parisian  cooks  and  milli- 
ners, have  levied  a  tax  upon  our  tongues  no  less  than  upon  our  purses. 
These  foreign  words,  when  first  introduced,  usually  appear  in  a 
foreign  dress.  They  are  printed  in  italics,  or  with  quotation  marks, 
or  in  some  way  to  indicate  that  they  are  foreigners,  and  not  yet 
entitled  to  the  full  rights  of  citizenship.  But  in  a  few  years,  the 
popular  ear  gets  accustomed  to  the  lingo,  the  popular  lip  learns  to 
sound  it  trippingly,  it  becomes  a  part  of  staple  English. 

But  there  is  another  source  from  which  Latin  words  have  been 
brought  into  the  language,  even  more  prolific  than  those  from  mix- 
ture of  race  and  from  national  intercourse.  I  refer  to  learning  and 
education.  From  an  early  period  in  English  history,  long  indeed 
before  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  all  ecclesiastics  were  instructed  in 
the  Latin  tongue,  because  in  that  tongue  all  the  church  services 
were  conducted.  Besides  this,  the  Latin  language  then  was,  and 
indeed  until  comparatively  modern  times  it  continued  to  be,  the 
general  language  of  scientific  and  literary  intercourse  throughout 
Europe.  Every  treatise  intended  for  general  dissemination  was 
written  as  a  matter  of  course  in  Latin.  Latin  was  the  only  medium 
by  which  an  author  could  make  himself  known  to  those  for  whom 
alone  books  were  intended,  namely,  the  learned  few.  In  addition 
to  this,  it  has  been,  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  it  still  is, 
the  settled  practice,  that  the  study  of  the  Latin  shall  form  a  lead- 
ing part  in  every  course  of  liberal  education.  All  educated  men,  of 
whatever  profession,  have  been,  as  a  matter  of  course,  Latin  scholars. 
The  language  of  Cicero  and  Virgil  has  been  as  familiar  to  English- 


372  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

men  of  education,  as  that  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser.  Indeed,  as  to  a 
critical  knowledge  either  of  authors  or  of  language,  Englishmen 
have  been  far  more  proficient  in  the  Latin  than  in  their  native 
English.  The  mother-tongue  has  been  left  to  take  its  chance  in  the 
nursery  and  the  play-ground,  while  Latin  has  been  interwoven  with 
every  element  of  their  intellectual  cultivation. 

The  effect  of  such  a  system  must  be  obvious.  The  wall  of  par- 
tition between  native  words  and  foreign  having  been  broken  down 
by  the  rude  shock  of  the  Conquest,  scholars  have  completed  what 
warriors,  teachers,  and  artists  began.  Hence  the  strange  anomaly, 
that  with  us  learned  men  have  been  the  chief  corrupters  of  the 
language.  The  Germans,  and  other  Teutonic  nations,  have  been  as 
much  addicted  to  the  cultivation  of  classical  scholarship  as  we  have. 
But  with  them  the  national  instinct  has  never  been  rudely  blunted, 
and  it  has  resisted  with  a  great  measure  of  success  the  Latinizing 
tendency  which  has  so  marked  all  classical  studies  with  us.  Our 
scholars  have  found,  not  only  no  resistance,  but  every  facility  which 
the  established  habits  of  the  people  could  afford,  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  Latin  words.  Out  of  this  abundance  of  their  hearts,  there- 
fore, they  have  freely  spoken.  Steeped  from  boyhood  in  the  diction 
of  the  most  polished  nations  of  antiquity,  they  have  but  followed  a 
natural  impulse,  when  they  have  used  "  dictionary "  for  "  word- 
book," "science"  for  "knowledge,"  " fraternal"  for  "brotherly," 
"maternal"  for  "motherly,"  "paternal"  for  "fatherly,"  "felicity" 
for  "  happiness,"  and  so  on,  to  an  extent  which  may  be  already 
counted  by  tens  of  thousands,  and  which  is  constantly  increasing. 

If  now,  from  a  review  of  the  whole  subject,  the  question  be  asked, 
What  are  the  main  elements  of  the  English  language  ?  the  answer 
will  be  obvious.  There  are,  indeed,  as  we  have  seen,  a  few  old 
Celtic  words,  which  have  come  down  to  us  directly  from  the  an- 
cient Britons.  Among  the  thousands  of  words,  also,  that  have 
come  to  us  from  France,  Spain,  and  perhaps  Italy,  there  are  doubt- 
less some  few  of  Celtic  origin,  because  the  original  population  of  all 
those  countries  was  Celtic,  before  they  were  overrun  by  the  Romans. 
We  have  also  a  few  Scandinavian  words,  introduced  by  the  Danes 
during  their  invasions  of  England  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries, 
such  as,  bait,  brag,  dish,  dock,  doze,  dwell,  flimsy,  fling,  gust,  ran- 
sack, rap,  whim,  etc.  There  are,  too,  without  doubt,  not  a  few 
Scandinavian  words  brought  by  the  Northmen  into  France,  and 
thence  by  their  descendants,  the  Normans,  into  England,  after  the 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  373 

Conquest.  We  have  also,  as  every  nation  has,  occasional  words, 
derived  from  every  country,  no  matter  how  remote,  with  which  we 
have  commercial  intercourse,  or  with  whose  literature  our  scholars 
have  been  conversant.  Thus,  we  have  tariff  from  Tarif a,  a  town  on 
the  Mediterranean,  where  import  duties  were  once  levied ;  tamarind, 
from  Heb.  tamar  and  ind-ns;  damask,  damascene,  and  damson, 
from  Damascus ;  spaniel,  from  Hispaniola ;  ratan,  bantam,  and  sago, 
Malay  words;  taboo,  Hawaiian;  algebra,  almanac,  alchemy,  chem- 
istry, talisman,  zero,  zenith,  coffee,  sugar,  syrup,  sofa,  mattress,  from 
the  Arabic ;  caravan,  dervish,  scarlet,  azure,  lilac,  from  the  Persian ; 
gong,  nankin,  from  China ;  muslin,  chintz,  and  calico,  from  India. 

But  all  these  together  are  few  and  inconsiderable,  in  comparison 
with  the  whole  number  of  our  words,  and  they  do  not  affect  the 
organic  character  of  the  language.  The  overwhelming  majority  of 
our  words  are  still  of  two  classes.  They  are  either  Saxon  or  Latin. 
These  are  the  two  main  elements  which  constitute  the  language. 

No  mention  has  been  made  thus  far  of  Greek  words,  of  which  we 
have  a  large  number  in  the  language.  The  omission  has  been  inten- 
tional, and  for  the  purpose  of  simplifying  the  historical  survey  of  the 
subject.  The  Greek  language  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  Latin,  that  in 
a  discussion  like  this,  they  may  be  considered  as  one.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  remark,  that  very  few  Greek  words  have  been  in- 
troduced by  mixture  of  race,  or  by  commercial  intercourse.  The 
Greek  words  which  we  have,  were  introduced  almost  entirely  by 
scholars  and  books.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  scientific  terms.  Indeed, 
nine-tenths  of  all  the  scientific  terms  that  we  have,  are  Greek. 

Of  the  relative  numbers  of  these  two  classes  of  words,  Saxon  and 
Latin,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  certainty.  If  we  exclude  all 
compound  and  obsolete  words,  and  all  purely  scientific  and  technical 
words,  the  ratio  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  to  the  whole  body  of  words 
in  the  language,  would  probably  be  about  six-tenths,  or  sixty  per 
cent.  If  we  examine,  however,  the  page  of  any  ordinary  English 
book,  the  Saxon  words  will  be  found  to  bear  a  much  larger  prepon- 
derance than  this.  One  reason  is,  that  all  the  small  connecting 
words,  the  articles,  pronouns,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  most 
of  the  adverbs,  are  Saxon.  These  small  words  occur  at  least  ten 
times  as  often  as  any  other  class  of  words  in  the  language.  For 
example,  "  wickedness,"  which  is  Saxon,  may  not  occur  more  fre- 
quently perhaps  than  "  malice,"  which  is  Latin.  But  "the,"  "and," 
"but,"  "if,"  etc.,  will  be  found  a  hundred  times,  where  either 
32 


374 


COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 


"  wickedness"  or  "  malice "  will  be  found  once.  Again,  some  writers 
are  noted  for  their  partiality  to  the  Latin  vocables,  others  for  their 
partiality  to  the  Saxon.  But,  taking  the  average  of  different  writers, 
and  excluding  works  of  science,  in  which  sometimes  the  words  are 
almost  entirely  Latin  and  Greek,  I  suppose  that  the  Saxon  words 
on  any  page  of  ordinary  English  will  be  found  to  be  nearly  nine- 
tenths  of  the  whole  number. 

The  Latin  words  that  have  found  their  way  into  the  English  may 
be  again  subdivided  into  two  well-defined  classes,  viz.,  those  that 
have  come  to  us  by  national  intercourse  and  admixture,  and  those 
that  have  come  through  learned  men  and  education.  The  former 
have  come  to  us  indirectly,  from  languages  that  are  not  pure  Latin, 
but  are  the  modern  representatives  and  descendants  of  that  tongue, 
viz.,  the  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Italian.  The  others  have 
come  directly  from  the  fountain-head,  the  Latin  itself.  Words  of  the 
former  class  are  all  more  or  less  corrupted,  either  in  those  modern 
languages  in  which  the  English  found  them,  or  in  the  transition  from 
those  languages  into  the  English.  Words  of  the  latter  class,  taken 
from  the  Latin  directly,  are  changed  very  little,  or  not  at  all. 

The  difference  between  these  two  classes  can  be  best  illustrated 
by  a  few  examples.  It  exists  mainly  in  the  stem,  or  root  of  the 
word.  Both  classes  are  obliged  to  conform  to  the  English  idiom  as 
to  the  termination.  But  in  the  stem,  while  those  coming  from  the 
Latin  directly  are  almost  without  change,  those  from  the  other 
languages,  particularly  those  from  the  French,  are  almost  invariably 
changed  in  the  spelling.     Thus : 


Latin  Stems. 

Curs-us, 

Cur(r)o, 

Reg-is, 

Fruct-us, 

Fragil-is, 

Pung-ens, 

Punct-um, 

Recept-um, 

Decept-um, 

Diurn-us, 


Words  coming  from  the 
Latin  directly. 


curs-ive, 

cur(r)ent, 

reg-al, 

fruct-ify, 

fragil-e, 

pung-ent, 

punct-ual, 

recept-acle, 

decept-ion, 

diurn-al, 


Words  coming  from  the 
French,  or  some  other 
modern  descendant  of 
the  Latin. 

course. 

cour-ier. 

royal. 

fruit. 

frail. 

poignant. 

point. 

receipt. 

deceit. 

journal. 


THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  375 

It  is  a  common  opinion,  that  the  language  has  deteriorated  in  con- 
sequence of  this  multitude  of  foreign  admixtures.  Some  purists 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  recommend  an  entire  disuse  of  words  of  Latin 
origin, — to  put  upon  them  the  ban  of  public  odium,  to  stigmatize 
them  as  foreigners  and  intruders.  It  cannot  be  doubted,  indeed, 
that  many  writers  have  been  beguiled  into  an  excess  in  their  par- 
tiality for  the  Latin  vocables. 

Dr.  Johnson  was  a  great  sinner  in  this  line.  "  Our  Father,  who 
art  in  heaven,"  translated  into  Johnsonese,  would  read  on  this  wise, 
"Parent  Divine,  who  existest  in  the  celestial  regions !  "  "  If  a  body 
kiss  a  body,  need  a  body  cry,"  is  a  piece  of  as  good  English  as  was 
ever  written.  Turned  into  Johnsonese,  it  would  run  somewhat  on 
this  wise :  "  On  the  supposition  that  an  individual  salutes  an  indi- 
vidual, does  an  individual  lie  under  an  obligation  to  exclaim  in  a 
vehement  and  plaintive  voice?"  A  boy  in  an  English  charity- 
school  was  once  asked,  "  what  King  David  did,  when  the  servants 
told  him  that  his  child  was  dead  ?  "  "  Please,  sir,  he  cleaned  him- 
self, and  took  to  his  victuals."  The  admirers  of  the  high-polite 
style  would  be  quite  shocked  at  such  homespun  talk,  and  would 
array  the  matter  thus:  "What  course  of  action  did  King  David 
pursue  when  he  received  intelligence  of  the  demise  of  the  infant? " 
Answer,  "  He  performed  his  ablutions,  and  immediately  proceeded 
to  partake  of  refreshments." 

Perhaps  the  happiest  hit  upon  this  style  is  the  imitation  of  Dr. 
Johnson  in  the  Rejected  Addresses.*  A  single  paragraph  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  performance. 

"  Professions  lavishly  effused  and  parsimoniously  verified  are  alike 
inconsistent  with  the  precepts  of  innate  rectitude  and  the  practice 
of  internal  policy ;  let  it  not  then  be  conjectured,  that  because  we 
are  unassuming,  we  are  imbecile ;  that  forbearance  is  any  indication 
of  despondency,  or  humility,  of  demerit.  He  that  is  the  most 
assured  of  success  will  make  the  fewest  appeals  to  favor,  and  where 
nothing  is  claimed  that  is  undue,  nothing  that  is  due  will  be  with- 
held. A  swelling  opening  is  too  often  succeeded  by  an  insignificant 
conclusion.  Parturient  mountains  have  ere  now  produced  muscipu- 
lar  abortions;  and  the  auditor  who  compares  incipient  grandeur 
with  final  vulgarity  is  reminded  of  the  pious  hawkers  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  solemnly  perambulate  her  streets,  exclaiming,  'In  the 
name  of  the  prophet  —  figs ! ' " 

*  Rejected  Addresses.  By  James  and  Horace  Smith.  A  series  of  parodies  oq  the 
authors  of  the  day,  published  in  1812. 


376  COMPOSITION  AND   REETORIQ. 

But  among  our  great  authors,  Dr.  Johnson  is  not  the  only  sinner 
in  this  respect.  Gibbon,  for  instance,  is  quite  his  equal.  No  book 
in  the  language  is  more  free  from  this  Latinism,  or  is  in  all  respects 
in  purer  English,  than  the  English  Bible.  The  writers  who  come 
nearest  to  the  Bible,  in  the  purity  of  their  English,  are  Shakespeare 
and  Bunyan.  Next  to  these,  I  suppose,  is  Addison.  Poetry  uni- 
formly is  freer  from  Latinism  than  prose  is. 

That  part  of  the  domain  of  English  letters  in  which  words  of 
classical  origin  most  abound,  is  in  the  field  of  science.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  Arabic  terms,  almost  our  entire  scientific  nomen- 
clature is  derived  from  the  Latin  and  Greek,  particularly  the  latter. 
Not  less  than  nine-tenths  of  our  scientific  terms  are  Greek.  Medi- 
cine, geology,  mineralogy,  grammar,  logic,  mathematics,  physics, 
and  metaphysics,  are  all  in  a  state  of  utter  dependence  upon  lan- 
guages with  which  none  but  the  learned  are  familiar.  This  has 
been,  undoubtedly,  a  hindrance  to  the  communication  of  knowledge. 
To  any  one  acquainted  with  the  Greek  and  Latin,  the  terms  used  in 
the  different  sciences  almost  of  themselves,  and  without  further 
study,  describe  the  objects  to  which  they  are  applied. 

If  now  these  terms,  instead  of  being  taken  from  a  dead  language, 
had  been  drawn  from  the  resources  of  the  mother-tongue,  the  very 
structure  of  the  word  would  show  its  meaning  even  to  the  unlet- 
tered, and  with  the  meaning  of  the  word  would  be  conveyed  a 
knowledge  of  the  thing. 

When,  for  instance,  the  anatomist  speaks  of  the  "  systole "  and 
"diastole"  of  the  heart,  he  talks  Greek.  lie  must  consequently 
explain  himself.  He  must  give  in  different  words  a  description  of 
the  thing  meant,  and  after  you  have  learned  from  these  other 
sources  the  nature  of  the  subject,  you  infer  vaguely  what  must  be 
the  meaning  of  the  words.  Now,  suppose  the  anatomist  had  been 
called  to  explain  the  same  point  to  a  native  Greek.  The  words 
themselves  would  have  conveyed  the  idea  which  is  meant,  and 
nothing  more  would  have  been  necessary  to  convey  this  idea,  even 
to  an  unlettered  man,  than  a  mere  enunciation  of  the  terms.  To  a 
native  Greek,  systole  and  diastole,  apogee  and  perigee,  hydraulics, 
hydrodynamics,  clepsydra,  creosote,  isomeric,  isomorphic,  metaraor- 
phic,  and  all  the  other  thousands  upon  thousands  of  scientific  terms, 
which  so  puzzle  the  mere  English  student,  are  just  as  intelligible  and 
expressive  in  themselves,  as  to  the  native  Englishman  are  our  home- 
spun compounds,  inkstand,  penhandle,  moonlight,  notebook,  sun- 


THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  377 

rise,  woodland,  hilltop,  cornfield,  snowflake,  pitchfork,  daylight, 
forenoon,  afternoon,  and  so  on,  to  any  extent.  I  cannot  doubt, 
therefore,  that  if  the  terms  of  science  had  been,  from  the  first,  and 
throughout,  carefully  elaborated  out  of  our  own  native  materials, 
the  difficulties  in  the  communication  of  science  would  have  been 
much  lessened. 

The  actual  number  of  foreign  words  in  the  language,  great  as  this 
may  be,  is  not  the  worst  feature  of  the  case.  A  still  greater  evil  is 
the  national  tendency  to  adopt  others  as  fast  as  they  are  wanted, 
without  reluctance,  and  apparently  without  limit,  instead  of  produc- 
ing them  by  a  process  of  home-manufacture.  In  some  languages 
there  appears  to  be  a  perfect  reliance  upon  their  own  resources  for 
the  expression  of  new  ideas.  Whenever,  in  the  progress  of  the 
arts,  or  in  the  wide  ranges  of  human  thought,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  employ  some  new  word  for  the  expression  of  some  new  shade  of 
meaning,  it  is  always  done  in  such  languages  by  some  new  com- 
bination or  fresh  moulding  of  the  materials  already  existing.  Such 
a  process  begets  a  habit,  and  with  the  habit  a  facility,  in  the  forma- 
tion of  compound  and  derivative  words,  that  in  the  end  render  a 
language  in  the  highest  degree  flexible  and  expressive.  Such  is  the 
truly  infinite  power  of  combination  in  a  language  so  formed,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  conceive  an  idea  which  the  language  does  not  fur- 
nish within  itself  the  means  of  completely  expressing.  How  differ- 
ent is  this  from  the  condition  of  the  English.  Every  new  fashion 
from  the  French  milliners,  every  new  dish  from  the  French  cooks, 
every  new  dancing- woman  from  the  French  stage,  every  new  singer 
or  fiddler  from  the  Italian  opera,  every  discovery  in  science,  every 
invention  in  art,  even  too  often  the  arts,  and  wants,  and  inventions 
that  spring  up  indigenously  among  ourselves,  have  to  be  made 
known  to  the  public  under  some  foreign  term.  Such  is  the  fashion, 
and  fashion  in  language,  as  in  most  things,  is  supreme.  Even  Morse 
must  call  his  far-off- writer  a  telegraph,  and  Webster  himself,  our 
great  lexicographer,  with  all  his  temerity,  had  not  the  courage  to 
call  his  Dictionary  a  Word-Book. 

How  different  have  been  the  fortunes  of  the  English  from  those 
of  the  German.  These  two  languages,  in  the  beginning  of  the  race, 
started  even.  They  were  both  of  the  same  common  stock.  Their 
parents,  the  old  Saxon  and  the  old  German,  have  a  common  ancestor 
in  the  venerable  Gothic.  Cradled  in  the  impenetrable  forests  of  the 
•elder  Europe,  they  were,  in  the  fifth  century,  in  the  same  incipient 
32* 


378  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

formative  condition.  The  German,  hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  hnt  not 
invaded,  was  led  by  circumstances  to  draw  upon  its  own  resources 
for  the  invention  of  new  terms  to  express  the  new  ideas  which  be- 
came evolved  in  the  onward  progress  of  civilization.  Hence  has 
resulted  a  language  capable  of  expressing,  by  combinations  of  its 
own  native  words,  every  shade  of  meaning  required  even  by  the 
teeming  brains  of  that  nation  of  students  —  a  language  uniting  in- 
finite diversity  of  forms  with  entire  simplicity  of  materials.  How 
different  the  English !  —  a  conglomerate  of  materials  from  a  dozen 
different  sources;  affluent,  indeed,  almost  beyond  comparison,  in 
its  multiplicity  of  words,  but  wanting  in  that  noble  simplicity 
which  might  have  been  the  result  of  a  different  course  of  political 
events. 

But  let  us  not  be  among  the  croakers.  Bad  as  the  case  is,  it  is 
not  entirely  hopeless.  There  are  in  various  quarters  symptoms  of  a 
growing  partiality  for  words  of  native  stock.  Besides  this,  the  very 
evil  complained  of  is  not  without  compensating  advantages.  One 
advantage  of  this  facility  with  which  we  borrow  foreign  words,  is 
that  we  have  thereby  become,  beyond  all  nations,  rich  in  synonyms. 
For  the  same  idea,  in  almost  numberless  instances,  we  have  two,  and 
sometimes  even  three  terms,  exactly  equivalent  and  equally  legiti- 
mate. This  is  a  decided  advantage,  saving  oftentimes  tiresome  and 
inelegant  repetitions.  The  writer  who  has  tired  his  readers  with 
the  term  "native  language,"  may  take  refuge,  as  in  this  chapter  I 
have  had  frequent  occasion  to  do,  in  the  "  mother  tongue."  The 
idea  is  kept  up,  but  the  tautology  is  spared.  Moreover,  it  frequently 
happens  in  these  cases,  that  of  two  words  of  different  origin,  used 
to  express  the  same  general  idea,  the  one  has  acquired  by  usage  a 
slight  shade  of  meaning  different  from  the  other,  so  delicate  and 
evanescent  as  scarcely  to  be  defined,  and  yet  perceptible  to  a  cul- 
tivated taste,  and  beautiful  in  proportion  to  its  delicacy.  How 
logically  the  same,  for  instance,  and  yet  how  different  to  the  loving 
heart,  are  the  words  "maternal "  and  "motherly."  It  was  his  skill 
in  availing  himself  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  language,  that  among 
other  things  enabled  our  own  Washington  Irving  to  express  with 
such  marvellous  exactness  the  endlessly  varying  shades  of  human 
thought  and  feeling  —  that  enabled  him  to  pass  from  the  grave  to 
the  gay,  from  the  didactic  to  the  playful,  from  the  humorous  to  the 
sublime,  with  an  ease  that  seems  only  equalled  by  the  movements 
of  the  mind  itself. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  379 

Far  be  it  from  me  then  to  join  the  ranks  of  those  who  would  dis- 
miss with  a  rude  rebuff  these  Latin-English  intruders.  They  are 
now  here.  They  form  a  large  and  valuable  element  of  our  language. 
They  are  a  part  of  our  national  wealth ;  and  they  should  be  cher- 
ished and  protected  accordingly.  All  I  would  ask,  is  to  protest 
against  the  unnecessary  introduction  of  more,  and  to  insist  upon 
making  the  native  element  of  the  language  a  subject  of  more  dis- 
tinct attention  than  it  has  hitherto  received  in  our  schemes  of  edu- 
cation. 


Index 


Abbreviations,  when  requiring  periods, 
43,44. 

Absolute  case,  requiring  comma,  34. 

Abstract  subjects  for  compositions,  315. 

Accents,  in  punctuation,  62 ;  accents  at 
convenient  intervals  promote  the 
harmony  of  the  sentence,  142;  needed 
near  the  close  of  a  sentence,  144;  in- 
terval between  accents,  222;  accent 
not  arbitrary,  223 ;  a  paramount  law 
in  all  speech,  223 ;  names  of  the  accent- 
ual divisions,  223;  place  of  the  accent 
important  in  giving  ease  and  pleasure 
to  pronunciation,  224;  rhythm  de- 
pendent upon  the  proper  adjustment 
of  the  accents,  224 ;  accentual  verse 
characteristic  of  modern  poetry,  247, 
248. 

Acts,  in  dramatic  poetry,  267. 

Addison,  example  of  misplaced  adverb, 
104 ;  misplaced  pronoun,  112 ;  inappro- 
priate simile,  161 ;  mixed  metaphor, 
165 ;  purity  of  his  English,  376. 

Addresses,  301 ;  college  addresses,  302. 

Admire,  meaning  changed,  79. 

Adroitness,  74. 

Adverbial  clauses,  position  of,  106. 

Adverbs,  position  in  the  sentence  im- 
portant to  clearness,  104 ;  position  of 
only,  wholly,  at  least,  etc.,  104, 105. 

Aeschylus,  267. 

ASsop's  Fables,  168. 

JEtna,  Sir  Richard  Blackmore's  descrip- 
tion of  it,  belittling,  204. 


Affectation  in  using  foreign  words,  72. 

Aggravates,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Akenside's  Pleasures  of  the  Imagina- 
tion, 272. 

Aldus  Manutius,  inventor  of  the  art 
of  punctuation,  21. 

Alford,  example  of  misplaced  adverb, 
104 ;  adverbial  clause  misplaced,  107 ; 
squinting  construction,  109 ;  misplace- 
ment of  pronouns,  112 ;  The  Queen's 
English,  352. 

Allegory,  167-169;  difference  between 
allegory  and  metaphor,  167 ;  points  in 
common  in  metaphor  and  allegory, 
167, 168 ;  allegory,  parable,  and  fable, 
points  in  common,  167 ;  rule  for  alle- 
gory, 169 ;  scientific  allegory  by  Prof. 
Forbes,  168. 

Alliteration  of  the  Saxon  verse,  233. 

Alone,  how  differing  from  only,  85. 

Alternatives,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Amatory  odes,  269. 

Ambiguity,  sentences  made  ambiguous 
by  faulty  arrangement,  104-110;  by 
misplacement  of  pronouns,  112-114. 

Anacreon,  his  odes,  270. 

Anapaast,  227 ;  anapaestic  verse,  227-230; 
anapajstic  metres  for  hymns,  how 
designated,  249. 

And,  management  of,  134. 

Anglo-Saxon,  language,  357;  conquest 
of  Britain,  3G5;  linguistic  results,  366, 
367. 

Annals,  297. 


INDEX. 


381 


Antithesis,  169,  170;  effect  of  it,  169; 
rule  in  regard  to  it,  169;  examples, 
169 ;  caution  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
antithesis,  170;  relation  to  epigram, 
171;  example  of  antithesis,  169. 

Apostrophe,  61 ;  a  figure  of  speech,  174 ; 
akin  to  exclamation,  174;  examples, 
175. 

.4p2>ost*ion,nouns  in,  require  comma, 33; 
reflex  apposition  requiring  dash,  51. 

Apt,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Arabians,  sometimes  supposed  to  be  the 
inventors  of  rhyme,  232 ;  rhyme  ex- 
tending to  more  than  three  syllables, 
233. 

Arabic  figures,  when  requiring  pe- 
riods, 44. 

Architecture,  compared  to  rhetoric,  197. 

Aristophanes,  of  Alexandria,  an  in- 
ventor of  points,  21;  the  dramatist, 
268. 

Arts,  Fine,  poetry  one  of  them,  263. 

Aryan,  language,  358. 

As  and  like,  confounded,  80. 

Asiatic  Society,  the  originator  of  San- 
scrit studies,  354. 

Aside,  set  aside,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Assassinate,  how  differing  from  kill 
and  murder,  85. 

Attitude,  of  devotion,  how  different 
from  posture  of  devotion,  84. 

Authority,  what  constitutes  authority 
for  a  word,  76. 

Autobiography,  298. 

Avocation,  distinguished  from  vocation, 
80. 

Avow,  acknowledge,  confess,  how  differ- 
ing, 85. 

Awfulness,  an  element  of  the  sublime, 
200;  objects  which  inspire  awe,  200; 
night  awful,  200. 

JSacchanalian  songs,  270. 

Bailey,  metaphor,  182. 

Baillie,  Joanna,  metaphor,  190. 

Balance,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Balanced  sentence,  98 ;  examples  from 
Johnson,  Junius,  Pope,  and  others,  99; 
use  of  balanced  sentence,  100 ;  the  par- 
allelism of  Hebrew  poetry  a  kind  of 
balanced  sentence,  100. 

Barbarism  in  language,  72. 


liarbauld,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 

Bear  and  JPero,  number  of  words  de- 
rived from  this  stem,  360,  361. 

Beattie,  specimen  of  anapaestic  verse,  254. 

Beauty,  206-211 ;  relation  of  beauty  to 
sublimity,  206 ;  color  an  element  of 
beauty,  207 ;  how  far  we  are  influenced 
by  association  in  our  admiration  of 
colors,  207 ;  color  in  the  natural  world 
an  evidence  of  God's  goodness,  207 ; 
figure  an  element  of  beauty,  207 ; 
regularity  pleasing,  207 ;  variety  pleas- 
ing, 208 ;  curved  lines  beautiful,  208 ; 
motion  a  source  of  beauty,  208 ;  com- 
plex beauty,  209 ;  beauty  of  counte- 
nance, 209;  moral  beauty,  210;  the 
beautiful  in  writing,  210;  beauty  of 
subject,  211;  difference  between  the 
beautiful  and  the  scientific,  211 ; 
beauty  of  expression,  21 1 ;  concise- 
ness not  necessary  to  beauty,  211. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  specimen  of  wit, 
214. 

Behest,  74. 

Belittling  comparisons,  161 ;  details, 
203. 

Besides  and  except  confounded,  80. 

Bible,  and  other  words  intended  to  desig- 
nate it,  require  a  capital,  67 ;  exam- 
ple of  metaphor,  179, 180, 184, 185 ;  per- 
sonification, 179,  187;  climax,  182; 
interrogation,  183;  simile,  185;  Eng- 
lish Bible,  the  best  specimen  of  pure 
English,  876. 

Biography,  298. 

Blackmore,  Sir  Richard,  description  of 
volcano,  204. 

Blair?  remarks  on  synonyms,  84 ;  on 
position  of  adverbs,  105 ;  on  supple- 
mentary clauses,  128 ;  on  omission  of 
connectives,  134;  on  letter-writing, 
274;  on  historical  composition,  294. 

Blank  verse,  237,  238 ;  not  always  iam- 
bic or  pentameter,  237. 

Boker,  instance  of  euphony,  141 ;  sound 
adapted  to  sense,  144, 145 ;  example  of 
alliteration,  233 ;  Song  of  the  Earth, 
specimen  of  blank  verse  not  iambic 
or  pentameter,  237;  specimen  of  mixed 
verse  in  Ivory-Carver,  240 ;  specimens 
of  versification,  253-255. 

Bonar,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 


382 


INDEX. 


Brace,  in  punctuation,  61. 

Brackets,  56,  57 ;  different  from  paren- 
thesis, 56 ;  relations  of  brackets,  pa- 
rentheses, dashes,  and  commas,  56 ; 
use  in  dictionaries,  57 ;  use  in  critical 
editions,  57 ;  in  plays,  57. 

Bridge  of  Sighs,  versification  of,  231. 

Britain,  Great,  its  settlement  and  lan- 
guage, 363,  364. 

Browning,  examples  of  ambiguity,  111 ; 
metaphor,  187, 191. 

Bryant,  personification,  181 ;  versifica- 
tion, 257 ;  Thanatopsis,  272. 

Bugle  Song,  Tennyson,  an  instance  of 
sound  adapted  to  sense,  146. 

Bulwer,  example  of  antithesis  and  sim- 
ile, 170 ;  metaphor,  189. 

Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  the  best 
allegory  in  all  literature,  168 ;  purity 
of  his  English,  376. 

Burlesque,  similes  intended  for,  158, 160. 

Burns,  examples  of  sectional  rhymes, 
237;  specimens  of  versification,  254; 
as  a  writer  of  songs,  270. 

Burton,  Tom  Flynn's  bewilderment  at 
the  misuse  of  he  and  his,  113. 

By,  distinguished  from  with,  86. 

Byron,  example  of  apostrophe,  175 ;  met- 
aphor, 190;  description  of  thunder- 
storm, 203;  a  passage  from  Byron 
turned  into  prose,  220;  example  of 
triple  rhymes,  233 ;  sectional  rhymes, 
237 ;  wrote  chiefly  in  the  Spenserian 
stanza,  241 ;  example,  253 ;  anapaestic 
verse,  255. 

Cadences,  a  name  for  accentual  divi- 
sions, 223. 

Cossar,  answer  to  the  pilot,  sublime,  202. 

Calculated,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Camp6efl,George,  his  positions  in  regard 
to  Use  as  the  law  of  language,  76 ;  his 
essay,  89-91;  language  should  be  a 
transparent  medium,  110. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  example  of  anapaes- 
tic verse,  252;  Pleasures  of  Hope,  272. 

Cant,  61. 

Capitals,  pp.  63-67 ;  object  of  using  them, 
21 ;  origin  of  the  word,  21 ;  history  of 
their  use,  22 ;  rules  for  use  of  capitals, 
63-67 ;  use  of  capitals  in  works  of  de- 
votion, 65. 


Captions,  62. 

Carelessness,  in  letter-writing,  275. 

Case,  vocative  and  absolute,  requires 
comma,  34. 

Cat  and  Rabbit,  described,  as  an  exer- 
cise in  composition,  336. 

Cataracts,  sublime,  199. 

Catch,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Cedilla,  62. 

Celtic,  peoples  and  languages,  356 ;  Celtic 
migrations,  363 ;  conflict  of  Celts  and 
Saxons,  365,  366. 

Censure,  meaning  changed,  79. 

Change  of  Subject  impairs  the  unity 
of  a  sentence,  125. 

Channing,  examples  of  periodic  sen- 
tence, 95. 

Chaucer,  inventor  of  the  rhythm-royal, 
240 ;  high  character  of  his  verse,  247. 

Chester,  origin  of  the  word,  364. 

Classic  verse,  different  from  English, 
238. 

Claud  tan,  sublime  passage  spoiled  by 
belittling  details,  204. 

Clauses,  intermediate,  26;  dependent, 
27;  relative,  28;  co-ordinate,  30;  in- 
verted, 34 ;  having  a  common  depend- 
ence, 37;  clause  additional,  38;  ad- 
verbial position  of,  106;  qualifying 
clauses,  how  to  be  disposed  of,  119; 
relative  clauses,  126;  parenthetical, 
127;  supplementary,  128. 

Clearness,  of  sentences,  rule  on  the  sub- 
ject, 104;  order  of  words  important,  104; 
clearness  hindered  by  wrong  position 
of  adverbs,  104 ;  Blair's  remark,  105. 

Clergymen,  etiquette  in  addressing 
them,  281. 

Clerk,  meaning  changed,  79. 

Climax,  adds  to  the  strength  of  a  sen- 
tence, 137 ;  climax  of  sentences,  138 ; 
poor  climaxes,  138. 

Close  of  a  sentence,  rules  for  its  manage- 
ment, 143,  144. 

Cobbett,  misuse  of  it,  112. 

Coining  new  words,  73,  74. 

Coleridge,  example  of  sectional  rhyme, 
236. 

Collins,  Odes,  269. 

Colon,  pp.  39-42. 

Color,  a  source  of  beauty,  207 ;  how  far 
influenced  by  association,  207. 


INDEX. 


383 


Columbus,  composition  on  him  by  a  boy 

of  nine,  323. 
Comedy,  267 ;  comic  songs,  270. 

Comma,  pp.  23-35 ;  origin  of  the  word, 
23 ;  meant  at  first  a  portion  of  a  sen- 
tence, 23;  rules  for  its  use,  24-35; 
double  commas,  62. 

Commenced,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Common  metre,  formula  given,  242. 

Complete,  how  differing  from  whole, 
entire,  total,  86. 

Complex  beauty,  209;  the  most  com- 
plete example  in  a  landscape,  209. 

Complex  sentences,  when  requiring  a 
colon,  40. 

Composing  (as  a  printer's  term),  63. 

Compositions  on  Objects,  308-311 ;  on 
Transactions,  312-314;  on  Abstract 
Subjects,  315-317 ;  on  Imaginary  Sub- 
jects, 318-325;  Personal  Narratives, 
326-334;  Descriptions,  335-340;  Mis- 
cellaneous, 341-346. 

Concede,  capability,  criminality,  conti- 
nental, 74;  cable-gram,  cable-graph, 
75. 

Conception,  vivid,  necessary  to  sublim- 
ity in  writing,  202. 

Conciseness,  necessary  to  the  sublime, 
204 ;  not  necessary  to  beauty,  211. 

Conclusion,  bringing  a  sentence  to,  135. 

Confess,  how  differing  from  avow  and 
acknowledge,  85. 

Confidence,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Connectives,  effect  of  their  omission,  134. 

Consider,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Construe  and  construct  confounded,  81. 

Contagion,how  differing  from  infection, 
86. 

Contempt,  an  ingredient  in  humor,  217. 

Contemptible,  for  contemptuous,  80. 

Contractions,  in  addressing  letters,  275, 
282. 

Contrasts, fault  j, IS7)  contrasted  changes 
give  strength,  137. 

Cookery,  its  terms  nearly  all  French,  377. 

Cornish,  race  and  language,  356. 

Correspond,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Correspondence  (see  Letter-writing), 
274. 

Countenance,  the  beauty  of,  209 ;  what 
constitutes  beauty  of  countenance, 
210. 


County,  when  to  be  given  in  heading  or 
in  superscription  of  a  letter,  276-282. 

Couple,  used  for  two,  83. 

Couplet,  defined,  226. 

Cowley,  far-fetched  simile,  159. 

Cowper,  example  of  metaphor,  189; 
Task,  272. 

Crabbe's  Dictionary  of  Synonyms,  84. 

Crowding  together  things  unconnected, 
impairs  the  unity  of  a  sentence,  125. 

Crusoe,  Robinson,  his  adventures  inca- 
pable of  forming  an  epic,  265. 

Curran,  sample  of  pun,  215. 

Curves,  an  element  of  beauty,  208. 

Cyclops  and  Vulcan,  199. 

Cymric,  languages  and  peoples,  356. 

Dactyl,  127  \  dactylic  verse,  227-231 ;  dac- 
tylic metres  for  hymns,  how  desig- 
nated, 245,  246. 

Danish,  invasion,  its  effect  on  the  lan- 
guage, 367. 

Darkness,  sublime  when  inspiring  awe, 
200. 

Dash,  49-53;  origin  and  how  used,  49; 
mistake  of  careless  writers  in  the  use 
of  the  dash,  50 ;  marks  change  of  con- 
struction, or  of  sentiment,  50;  em- 
phatic generalization,  50;  elocution- 
ary pause,  50 ;  rhetorical  repetition,51; 
parenthetical,  52;  titles  run  in,  52; 
omissions,  question  and  answer,  etc., 
53. 

Date,  in  letter-writing,  276 ;  in  diary,  284. 

Decimated,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Demean,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Dependent  clauses,  explained,  27 ;  re- 
quire commas,  27. 

Descriptions,  as  an  exercise  in  compo- 
sition, 335-340;  taking  notes  impor- 
tant, 335 ;  rules  to  be  observed,  336 ; 
examples,  336-340. 

Diaries,  283;  essential  character,  283; 
style,  283;  dates,  important,  284; 
blank  days,  284. 

Dickens,  a  humorist,  219 ;  specimen  of 
verse,  260. 

Diction,  71-91 ;  command  of  words  im- 
portant, 71;  how  obtained,  71;  en- 
larged by  extemporaneous  transla- 
tion, 71 ;  by  the  habit  of  referring  to 
the  dictionary,  72 ;  diction,  when  pure, 


384 


INDEX. 


72 ;  standard  of  purity,  72 ;  purity  af- 
fected by  foreign  words,  72 ;  by  obso- 
lete words,  73 ;  by  new  words,  74 ;  pro- 
priety of  diction,  78;  means  of  at- 
taining it,  79 ;  violations  of  propriety, 
80,  81 ;  precision,  83 ;  how  attained, 
83,84. 

Dictionary,  habit  of  consulting  it  rec- 
ommended, 72. 

Didactic  poetry,  272. 

Difficulty,  how  differing  from  obstacle, 
84. 

Dimeter,  227,  231. 

Directly,  used  incorrectly,  81. 

Discourse,  defined,  17. 

Discourses,  301;  orations,  301;  ad- 
dresses, 301;  sermons,  302;  lectures, 
302;  speeches,  302;  unity  of  a  dis- 
course, 303;  adaptation  to  the  audi- 
ence, 303 ;  symmetry,  304 ;  parts  of  a 
discourse,304 ;  introduction, 304 ;  state- 
ment, 304;  conclusion  or  peroration, 
305. 

Discover,  different  from  invent,  86. 

D'Israeli,  adverbial  clause  misplaced, 
107. 

Doane,  Bishop,  abounds  in  short  sen- 
tences, 10L 

Doddridge,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 

Dramatic  poetry,  abounds  in  exclama- 
tions, 174;  general  description,  266- 
268.    (See  Poetry.) 

Dry  den,  mixed  metaphor,  164;  meta- 
phor, 180,  184;  simile,  183,  184;  tro- 
chaics  in  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  228 ;  his 
verse  compared  with  that  of  Milton 
and  Chaucer,  247 ;  specimen  of  verse, 
257 ;  odes,  269. 

Dwight,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 

Earthquakes,  sublime,  199. 

East  India  Company,  the  means  of 
linguistic  research,  354. 

Edified,  how  used  by  Spenser,  79. 

Editorials,  287;  a  high  order  of  com- 
position, 287;  not  impersonal  truth, 
287 ;  editor's  estimate  of  his  own  po- 
sition as  a  public  teacher,  287 ;  differ- 
ence between  editorials  and  news,  288. 

Education,  a  source  of  corruption  to  the 
language,  371. 

Elegy,  270.    (See  Poetry.) 


Elision,  in  verse,  248;  mistake  of  the 
older  critics  in  regard  to  it,  249 ;  eli- 
sion not  necessary,  249. 

Ellipsis  of  verb,  requires  comma,  35. 

Elocution,  its  pauses  not  marked  by  the 
grammatical  points,  22 ;  elocutionary 
pause  marked  by  a  dash,  50 ;  elocution 
aided  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the 
sentences,  120. 

Emerson,  The  Mountain  and  the  Squir- 
rel, as  a  specimen  of  wit,  214. 

Emphasis,  sentences  should  be  con- 
structed with  reference  to  emphasis, 
117. 

English  language,  essay  on  it,  351- 
379 ;  true  place  of  English  in  general 
philology,  353;  occupation  of  Eng- 
land by  successive  races,  363-367; 
origin  and  composition  of  the  lan- 
guage, 363-379. 

English  verse,  accentual,  not  syllabic, 
247. 

Enough,  distinguished  from  sufficient, 
86. 

Entire,  distinguished  from  whole,  total, 
complete,  86. 

Epic  poetry,  263-266.    (See  Poetry.) 

Epigram,  origin  and  meaning,  171 ;  re- 
lation to  antithesis,  171;  examples, 
171, 191, 193. 

Epitaph,  271. 

Epithets,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Essays,  291;  how  differing  from  re- 
views, 291 ;  number  of  essayists,  291 ; 
present  mode  of  publication,  291; 
Whipple.Tuckerman,  and  Lowell,  292. 

Etiquette,  in  addressing  a  letter,  281. 

Etymology,  study  recommended,  72. 

Euphony,  construction  of  sentences 
with  reference  to  it,  140-142. 

Euripides,  267. 

Evacuate,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Evangeline,  Longfellow's,  its  versifica- 
tion, 238. 

Every,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Example,  distinguished  from  instance, 
87. 

Except,  used  for  unless,  80. 

Exceptionable,  for  exceptional,  82. 

Excite,  distinguished  from  incite,  86. 

Exclamation,  as  a  figure  of  speech,  173 ; 
akin  to  interrogation,  173 ;  caution  in 


INDEX. 


385 


regard  to  the  use  of  it,  174 ;  relation 
to  apostrophe,  174. 

Exclamation  point,  47,  48 ;  0  and  oh, 
48 ;  double  exclamations,  48. 

Expect,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Expression,  beauty  of,  211 ;  things  in- 
compatible with  beauty  of  expression, 
212. 

Expressions,  parenthetical,  24;  inter- 
mediate, 26. 

Explicit,  express,  distinguished,  86. 

Faber,  as  a  hymnist,  269. 

Fable,  akin  to  allegory  and  parable,  167  ; 
where  found,  168. 

Faerie  Queene,  an  allegory,  168 ;  writ- 
ten in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  241. 

Falstaff,  incompatible  with  epic  char- 
acter, 265. 

Farce,  268. 

Far-fetched  similes,  159. 

Fashion,  its  terms  mostly  French,  377. 

Fear,  composition  on  it,  315. 

Feet,  name  for  accentual  divisions,  223 ; 
foot  defined,  226;  different  kinds  of 
feet,  226. 

Fellowship,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Fero  and  bear,  the  stem  of  these  words 
a  prolific  source  of  words,  360-362. 

Fiction,  its  prevalence,  298 ;  kinds,  299 ; 
historical  novels,  299;  appeal  to  cu- 
riosity, 299  ;  delineation  of  character, 
300 ;  effect  of  novel-reading,  300 ;  re- 
ligious fiction,  300. 

Figure,  (mathematical,)  a  source  of 
beauty,  208;  what  kind  of  figures 
pleasing,  208. 

Figures, (rhetorical,)  154-196;  relation  of 
figures  to  diction  and  sentences,  154 ; 
definition,  154;  tropes,  155;  origin  of 
figures,  156;  simile,  157;  metaphor, 
162;  allegory,  167;  antithesis,  169 ;  epi- 
gram, 171 ;  metonymy,  171 ;  synecdo- 
che, 172 ;  interrogation,  173 ;  excla- 
mation, 173 ;  apostrophe,  174 ;  person- 
ification, 175;  hyperbole,  177;  irony, 
178 ;  effect  of  undue  use  of  figures,  166. 

Fine  Arts,  poetry  one  of  them,  263. 

Fir  e~wor shippers,  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Persia,  356. 

Firmament,  an  instance  of  the  sublime, 
199. 

33 


Flirtation,  peculiarity  of  the  word,  74. 

Folio,  63. 

Forbes,  Professor,  a  beautiful  example 
of  scientific  allegory,  168. 

Foreign  words,  not  to  be  used  unnec- 
essarily, 72;  may  become  domesti- 
cated, 73. 

Formidably,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

JPraMfeMn,Benjamin,samplesofpun,214. 

Frenchified  diction,  73. 

French  writers  use  short  sentences,  101. 

Frontispiece,  62. 

Gaelic  languages,  356. 

Gay,  personification,  182 ;  metaphor,  190. 

Gentle  most  agreeable,  208. 

Gerald  Massey.    (See  Massey.) 

German  writers  use  long  sentences,  101. 

Germanic  languages,  357. 

Ghosts  inspire  awe  because  of  their  ob- 
scurity, 201. 

Gibbon,  use  of  Latin  words,  376. 

Glacier,  allegorical  description  of  one, 
168. 

God,  names  and  attributes  to  begin  with 
a  capital,  65 ;  his  goodness  shown  by 
the  beauty  of  color  in  the  natural 
world,  207. 

Golden  Legend,  Longfellow's,  a  speci- 
men of  mixed  verse,  239. 

Goldsmith,  metaphor,  190 ;  simile,  190 ; 
Madame  Blaize,  213. 

Gospels,  sublimity  of  them,  205. 

Got ,  example  of  its  misuse,  81. 

Gothic  languages  and  peoples,  357. 

Gould,  Edward  S.,  on  good  English,  352. 

Governor,  how  to  be  addressed,  281. 

Grammar,  related  to  rhetoric,  17,  18; 
derives  its  authority  from  use,  89. 

Gray,  metaphor,  190 ;  versification,  259 ; 
odes,  269 ;  Elegy,  271. 

Greatness,  moral,  sublime,  201. 

Greek  language,  357;  proportion  of 
Greek  words  in  English,  373. 

Greeks  and  Latins,  greater  variety  of 
feet,  227;  Greek  verse  syllabic,  not 
accented,  247. 

Habit  of  punning,  bad,  216 ;  habit  of 

being  witty,  dangerous,  216. 
Hallam,  pronoun  misplaced,  112. 
Halleck,  specimen  of  versification,  255. 


386 


INDEX. 


Hallelujah  metre,  formula  given,  244. 

Hammers.    (See  Steam.) 

Hand,  (printer's  term,)  61. 

Harmony  of  sentences,  140-146 ;  pro- 
moted by  proper  choice  of  words,  140 ; 
by  arrangement  of  the  words,  141 ; 
by  accents  at  convenient  intervals, 
142 ;  by  cadence  at  the  close,  143 ;  by 
adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense,  144. 

Hawtrey,  best  specimen  extant  in  Eng- 
lish hexameter,  239. 

Heading  of  a  letter,  275,  276. 

Heaviness,  how  differing  from  weight,  85. 

Heber,  example  of  simile,  193 ;  specimen 
of  dactylic  verse,  231 ;  a  hymn,  251 ; 
as  a  hymnist,  269. 

Hebrew  once  supposed  to  be  the  fountain 
of  all  languages,  353. 

Hellenic  languages,  357. 

Heptameter,  227. 

Hero,  of  the  epic,  265 ;  heroic  odes,  269. 

Hexameter,  227,  231 ;  fine  specimens, 
239,  240. 

Hiawatha,  Longfellow's,  its  versifica- 
tion, 238. 

Hindoo  epigram,  213. 

History,  293;  general  character,  294; 
unity  of  subject,  294;  complex  sub- 
jects, 295;  chronological  order,  295; 
qualities  of  historical  composition, 
295;  keeping  up  the  connection  of 
events,  295;  dulness  co  be  avoided, 
296 ;  gravity  of  style,  296 ;  delineation 
of  characters,  297 ;  sound  morals  to  be 
enforced,  297  ;  relation  to  annals,  me- 
moirs, and  biography,  298. 

Holland,  example  of  metaphor,  165, 195 ; 
simile,  195. 

Holmes,  examples  of  simile,  193 ;  a  hu- 
morist, 219. 

Homer**  Iliad,  one  of  the  three  great 
epics,  263. 

Hood,  specimens  of  pun,  215 ;  a  humorist, 
219 ;  versification  of  Bridge  of  Sighs, 
231 ;  specimen  of  verse,  258. 

Hook,  specimen  of  pun,  215. 

Horace,  his  dictum  in  regard  to  new 
words,  76;  as  a  writer  of  odes,  270; 
Art  of  Poetry  a  didactic  poem,  272. 

Home  Tooke.    (See  Tooke.) 

Hugo,  Victor,  excessive  use  of  antithe- 
sis, 170. 


Humanitarian,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Humor,  how  far  like  wit,  217;  incon- 
gruity an  element  of  humor,  217; 
surprise,  217 ;  contempt  an  ingredient 
in  humor,  217;  humor  something 
characteristic,  218 ;  humor  kindly,  219. 

Hymns,  228;  abound  in  exclamation, 
174;  a  species  of  lyric  poetry,  269; 
Latin  rhyming  hymns,  232;  construc- 
tion of  the  hymn  stanzas,  242 ;  long, 
short,  common,  particular,  hallelujah 
metres,  etc.,  242-246;  nomenclature 
proposed  for  the  8's,  7's,  etc.,  245. 

Hyperbole,  177 ;  explanation,  177 ;  cau- 
tion in  regard  to  the  use  of  hyperbole, 
177;  hyperbole  of  the  imagination 
distinguished  from  that  of  passion, 
177;  school-girl  hyperbole,  178;  ex- 
ample from  Young,  190. 

Iambus,  227 ;    iambic  verse,    227,  229; 

blank  verse  usually  iambic,  237. 
Iliad,  Homer's,  one  of  the  three  great 

epics  of  the  world,  263. 
Imaginary  Subjects  for  compositions, 

318-322. 
Imagination,  necessity  of  an  excited 

and  a  creative  imagination  in  order 

to  the  production  of  poetry,  262. 
Impulse,  vocal,  222 ;  the  origin  of  sylla- 
bles, 222;  strong  and  light  impulses, 

222 ;  time  between  impulses,  222. 
Inaugurate,  used  incorrectly,  82. 
Incite,  distinguished  from  excite,  86. 
Incongruity,  an  element  of  humor,  217. 
Index,  (printer's  term,)  61. 
India,  its  language,  354-356. 
Indo-European,  family  of  languages, 

358. 
Infection,  different  from  contagion, 

86. 
Inflexible,  different  from  inexorable, 

83. 
Tngelow,  Jean,  example  of  metaphor,  192. 
Initials,  the  inconvenience  of  signing 

the  initials  only  of  one's  first  name, 

278. 
Insolent,  how  used  by  Milton,  79. 
Instance, distinguished  from  example, 

87. 
Intensify,   coined    by    Coleridge,   73; 

idiom,  ignore,  74 ;  ivorytype,  75. 


INDEX. 


387 


Intermediate  expressions,  different 
from  restrictive  clauses,  26;  require 
commas,  26. 

Interrogation  point,  46,  47;  when  to 
be  followed  by  a  capital,  and  when 
not,  46;  interrogation  as  a  figure  of 
speech,  173;  peculiarities,  173;  akin 
to  exclamation,  173;  example  from 
Bible,  183. 

Invent,  different  from  discover,  86. 

Invention,  a  division  of  rhetoric,  why- 
treated  last,  18;  defined,  306;  mistake 
of  the  older  writers  in  regard  to  in- 
vention, 306 ;  its  true  office,  307 ;  com- 
parative importance,  307  ;  how  treated 
in  this  book,  307. 

Inversion,  sometimes  useful  in  making 
a  sentence  emphatic,  118;  inversion 
produced  by  using  "there"  and  "it," 
118. 

Invite,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Iranic,  languages,  356. 

Irish,  or  Erse,  language,  357. 

Irony,  a  figure  of  speech,  178, 179 ;  ex- 
amples, 178,  179,  192. 

Irving,  instance  of  harmonious  sen- 
tences, 144;  a  humorist,  219;  his  skill 
in  the  use  of  words,  378. 

Italic,  languages,  357. 

Italics,  62;  marking  emphatic  words 
with  italics,  120. 

Japhetic,  family  of  languages,  358. 

Jesus  Christ,  the  sublimity  of  his  utter- 
ances, 205. 

Johnson,  example  of  balanced  sentence, 
94;  harmonious  sentence,  143;  his 
Latinized  diction,  375. 

Junius,  example  of  balanced  sentence, 
99;  metaphors,  164 

Ken,  a  writer  of  hymns,  269. 

Kill,  how  different  from  murder   and 

assassinate,  85. 
Kindness,  characteristic  of  humor  and 

of  the  humorists,  219. 
Kingly,  how  differing  from  regal  and 

royal,  86. 

lady  of  the  Lake,  versification  of,  231. 
Iamb,  a  humorist,  219. 
lampoon,  272. 


language,  Use  the  law  of,  89 ;  essay  on 
the  English  language,  351-379. 

Latham,  on  the  English  language,  352, 
366. 

Latin,  languages,  357 ;  migrations  of  the 
Latin  race,  357 ;  effect  of  the  study 
of  Latin  on  English,  371,  372;  propor- 
tion of  Latin  words  in  the  English, 
373,  374 ;  Latinizing  tendencies  of  the 
language,  372-376 ;  classification  of 
the  Latin-English  words,  374. 

Latins  and  Greeks  used  greater  va- 
riety of  feet  than  we  do,  227 ;  Latin 
rhyming  hymns,  232 ;  Latin  verse  syl- 
labic, not  accentual,  247. 

Lays,  Macaulay's,  peculiarity  of  the 
verse,  228. 

Leaders,  (printer's  term),  62. 

Leads,  (printer's  term,)  63. 

Lectures,  302. 

Lee,  F.  G.,  specimen  of  verse,  260. 

Leibnitz,  first  shook  the  old  theory  of 
language,  353. 

Letters,  273-283;  letter-writing  an  im- 
portant part  of  composition,  273; 
variety  of  style  requnou,  273;  Blair's 
recommendations,  274 ;  correspond- 
ence, 274;  letters  of  distinguished 
persons,  274;  what  is  required  in  a 
letter,  274 ;  what  letters  are  best,  275 ; 
carelessness  in  letters,  275 ;  forms  re- 
quired, 275;  the  heading,  275,  276; 
the  street,  number,  state,  etc.,  275; 
contractions,  275 ;  reasons  for  particu- 
larity, 276 ;  the  date,  276 ;  form  of  the 
heading,  276 ;  the  address,  277 ;  mili- 
tary form,  277;  form  for  ordinary 
letters,  277 ;  for  business  letters,  278 ; 
the  subscription,  278,280;  inconven- 
ience of  signing  the  initials  only  of 
one's  first  name,  278 ;  sex,  how  to  be 
distinguished  in  the  signature  to  a 
letter,  279 ;  married  women  and  wid- 
ows, their  signatures,  279 ;  terms  of 
endearment  in  a  signature,  279;  ar- 
rangement of  the  signature,  279 ;  ex- 
amples, 279, 280 ;  superscription,  or  ad- 
dress of  a  letter,  280-283;  why  im- 
portant, 280;  penmanship  in  address- 
ing a  letter,  280 ;  nicknames  and  fancy 
names  not  allowable  on  the  outside  of 
a  letter,  280;  professional  titles,  how 


338 


INDEX. 


to  be  given  in  the  address,  281 ;  how 
to  address  a  clergyman,  a  governor, 
a  president,  etc.,  281,  282;  how  to  ar- 
range the  items  on  the  envelope,  282. 

Like  and  as  confounded,  80. 

Likeness,  how  related  to  simile,  158. 

Line,  synonymous  with  verse,  226; 
lengths  of  line,  226. 

Linguistics,  the  newest  of  the  sciences, 
351 ;  its  scope,  351 ;  recent  works  on 
the  subject,  352. 

Linguistic  studies  enlarge  one's  vo- 
cabulary, 71. 

Lion,  sublime,  200. 

Liquidate,  meaning  changed,  79. 

Liquid  sounds,  how  far  desirable,  140, 
141. 

Locomotive,  an  example  of  the  sublime, 
199;  its  shriek  not  sublime,  201. 

Jjogic,  related  to  rhetoric,  17,  18. 

Longfellow,  sound  adapted  to  sense, 
146 ;  far-fetched  simile,  160 ;  metaphor, 
191,  192,  194 ;  Hiawatha,  its  versifica- 
tion, 238 ;  Evangeline,  its  versification, 
238, 239 ;  fine  specimen  of  mixed  verse, 
in  the  Golden  Legend,  239 ;  examples 
of  versification,  254,  257,  258. 

Longinus,  his  comment  on  the  sublim- 
ity of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  205. 

Long  metre,  formula  given,  242. 

Loose  sentences,  93 ;  uses,  93 ;  dangers, 
93;  examples  from  Milton,  Macaulay, 
and  Trench,  94-96. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  examples  of  meta- 
phor, 180-187,  194,  195;  a  humorist, 
219 ;  Commemoration  Ode,  269 ;  as  an 
essayist,  292. 

Lucid,  luminous,  how  differing,  85. 

Lucy  Larcom,  specimen  of  versifica- 
tion, 250. 

Lyric  poetry,  abounds  in  exclamations, 
174;  discussed,  268-270.  (See  Poetry.) 

Macaulay,  examples  of  periodic  sen- 
tences, 94;  skill,  in  the  management 
of  long  periods,  124,  125;  simile,  187; 
lays  in  heptameter  verse,  228 ;  review 
of  Milton,  289. 

Malice,  malevolence,  malignity,  how  dif- 
fering, 85. 

Married  women,  how  to  sign  their 
names  in  letter-writing,  279. 


Marsh,  Professor,  recommends  extem- 
poraneous translation  as  a  means  of 
extending  one's  command  of  words, 
71;  Lectures  on  the  English  Lan- 
guage, 352. 

Massey,  Gerald,  faulty  metaphor,  165. 

Mathematical  figures,  how  far  con- 
sistent with  beauty,  208. 

Matinee,  afternoon  (?),  82. 

Meditative  poetry,  272. 

Melodrama,  268. 

Memoirs,  how  related  to  history  and 
biography,  298. 

Memory,  outline  for  composition  on  it, 
317. 

Metaphor,  162-166;  difference  between 
metaphor  and  simile,  162 ;  effective- 
ness of  metaphor,  162 ;  rules  common 
to  metaphor  and  simile,  163;  meta- 
phorical and  literal  should  not  be 
mixed,  164;  examples  of  metaphor, 
164;  mixed  metaphors,  165;  crowded 
metaphors,  165;  straining  the  meta- 
phor, 166;  difference  between  meta- 
phor and  allegory,  166;  examples 
from  Joanna  Baillie,  190;  Bible,  179, 
180,  184;  Browning,  Mrs.,  187,  191; 
Bulwer,  189;  Byron,  190;  Cowper,  189; 
Dryden,  180,  183;  Goldsmith,  190; 
Gray,  190;  Holland,  195;  Jean  Inge- 
low,  192;  Longfellow,  191,  192,  194; 
Lowell,  180-188,  194, 195;  Milton,  189, 
190;  Moore,  189;  Pope,  182;  Shake- 
speare, 179, 182,  187, 189, 190, 193 ;  Ten- 
nyson, 196 ;  Tribune,  N.  Y.,  179 ;  Whit- 
tier,  188;  Willis,  192;  Young,  180,  181, 
182, 188. 

Metonymy,  171;  kinds  of  metonymy 
with  examples,  172,  191. 

Metres,  psalms  and  hymns,  mode  of  des- 
ignating them,  242-246. 

Metrical  chronicle,  266. 

Metrical  romance,  akin  to  the  epic,  266. 

Military  form  in  addressing  letters, 
277. 

Milton,  examples  of  periodic  sentence, 
92,  93;  instance  of  euphony,  142; 
prose  writings  rhythmical,  143;  sound 
adapted  to  sense,  145;  similes,  157, 
159;  metaphor,  181;  personification, 
181;  metaphor,  189;  simile,  190;  sub- 
lime description,  204;  Paradise  Lost 


INDEX. 


389 


in  blank  verse,  237 ;  a  better  rhyth- 
niist  than  Pope  and  Dryden,  247 ;  ex- 
ample of  versification,  254;  Paradise 
Lost  one  of  the  three  great  epics  of  the 
world,  263 ;  Lycidas,  an  elegy,  271 ; 
Macaulay's  review  of,  289. 

Miracles  of  Christ  sublime,  205. 

Miscellaneous  subjects  for  composition, 
341-346. 

Missionaries,  English  and  American, 
the  means  of  linguistic  research,  354. 

Mixed  verse,  238-240;  English  verse 
compared  with  classic  in  regard  to 
mixed  verse,  239. 

Modern  verse,  distinguished  from  the 
classic,  247,  248 ;  requirements  in  re- 
gard to  elision,  249. 

Monometer  verse,  227,  231. 

Montgomery,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 

Moon,  criticism  on  Dean  Alford,  113; 
The  Dean's  English,  352. 

Moon,  Man  in  the  Moon,  compositions 
on  it,  319-322. 

Moore,  Thomas,  metaphor,  189;  exam- 
ples of  versification,  253, 258 ;  a  writer 
of  songs,  270. 

Moral  greatness,  sublime,  201 ;  exam- 
ples, 202;  moral  beauty,  210;  moral 
odes,  269. 

Motion,  a  source  of  beauty,  208. 

Mutter,  Max,  Works  on  the  Science  of 
Language,  352. 

Murder,  how  differing  from  hill  and 
assassinate,  85. 

Mutual,  used  improperly  for  common,  80. 

Names,  how  to  be  given  in  addressing 
letters,  281. 

Napoleon,  reference  to  the  pyramids, 
sublime,  203. 

Narratives,  personal,  an  exercise  in 
composition,  326;  examples,  326-334. 

National  use  of  words,  as  opposed  to 
local,  76. 

Neither,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

News,  284 ;  literary  character  of  news- 
writing,  284;  things  to  be  aimed  at  by 
the  news-writer,  285;  accuracy,  285; 
condensation,  286;  perspicuity,  286; 
news  different  from  other  reading,  286. 

Newton,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 

Night,  awful,  200. 
33* 


Norman  invasion,  its  effects  on  the  lan- 
guage, 368-370. 

Norton,  Mrs.,  specimen  of  versification 
and  stanza,  258. 

Notes,  to  be  taken  on  the  spot,  when  we 
wish  to  describe,  335. 

Numbers,  represented  by  capital  letters, 
64;  a  name  for  accentual  divisions, 


Objects,  compositions  on,  308. 

Obscurity,  an  element  of  the  sublime, 
200. 

Obsolete  words,  rule  in  regard  to  them, 
73. 

Obstacle,  how  differing  from  difficulty, 
84. 

Occasion,  opportunity,  how  differing, 
85. 

Octave,  the  major  division  of  the  sonnet, 
242. 

Only,  how  differing  from  alone,  85. 

Opera,  74,  268. 

Orations,  301. 

Oratory,  not  included  in  this  work,  17. 

Ossian,  simile,  158 ;  metaphor,  164. 

Outline,  the  preparation  of  one  neces- 
sary in  beginning  to  write  composi- 
tions, 308 ;  specimens  of  outlines,  308, 
310,  312,  314,  315,  317. 

Outsider,  when  coined,  73. 

Pale,  pallid,  wan,  how  differing,  85. 

Palmer,  Ray,  as  a  hymnist,  269. 

Paper,  composition  on,  309. 

Parable,  akin  to  allegory  and  fable,  167 ; 
where  found,  168. 

Paradise  Lost,  one  of  the  three  great 
epics  of  the  world,  263. 

Paradox,  apparent,  in  the  effect  of  con- 
junctions, 134. 

Paragraph,  61. 

Parallelism  of  the  Hebrew  poetry,  100. 

Parenthesis,  54-56 ;  different  from  par- 
enthetical expression,  24;  origin  of 
the  word,  54 ;  difference  between  pa- 
renthesis and  marks  of  p.,  54 ;  danger 
in  using  parenthetical  clauses,  127; 
Blair's  opinion  of  them,  127. 

Parenthetical  expressions,exp\a.medt 
24 ;  requiring  a  comma,  24 ;  requiring 
dashes,  52. 


390 


INDEX. 


Parker,  Archbishop,  example  of  section- 
al rhyme,  236. 

participial  construction,  how  em- 
ployed in  producing  emphasis,  119. 

Pastoral  poetry,  271.    (See  Poetry.) 

Pedantry  in  the  use  of  foreign  words, 
72. 

Pell-mell,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Penmanship,  in  addressing  a  letter, 
280. 

Pentameter,  227, 231 ;  blank  verse  usual- 
ly pentameter,  237. 

Period,  42-45;  derivation  and  meaning 
of  the  word,  42 ;  used  after  abbrevia- 
tions, 43 ;  per  cent.,  or  per  cent,  44 ;  use 
of  parenthesis  in  reporting  speeches, 
55 ;  in  scientific  enumerations,  55 ;  re- 
quires a  capital  after  it,  64. 

Periodic  sentence,  92;  example  from 
Temple,  92 ;  from  Milton,  93. 

Peroration,  305. 

Persia,  its  ancient  inhabitants  and  lan- 
guage, 356. 

Persians,  prevalence  of  rhyme,  233. 

Personal  narratives,  as  exercises  in 
composition,  326 ;  examples,  326-334. 

Personification,  distinguished  from 
apostrophe,  175;  special  facilities  in 
English  for  personification,  175 ;  vari- 
ous kinds  and  degrees  of  it,  175, 176 ; 
example  from  Bible,  180 ;  from  Bry- 
ant, 181 ;  from  Milton,  181 ;  Bible,  187. 

Perspicuity,  importance  of,  111. 

Phrases,  when  parenthetical,  24, 25. 

Piers  Ploughman,  example  of  alliter- 
ative verse,  233. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  the  most  perfect 
allegory  in  literature,  168. 

Pindar,  odes,  269. 

Plagiarism,  what  it  is,  58. 

Please,  the  primary  object  of  poetry,  to 
please,  262. 

Poe,  sound  adapted  to  sense,  146 ;  versifi- 
cation of  the  Raven,  229,  259. 

Poetry,  punctuation  of,  65 ;  Hebrew,  100 ; 
different  from  verse,  220;  poetical 
form  more  pleasing  than  the  prose 
form  for  the  same  thought,  220,  221 ; 
poetry  differs  from  prose  in  the 
greater  perfection  of  its  rhythm,  224 ; 
more  general  term  than  verse,  225; 
defective  definitions  of  poetry,  225; 


difference  between  poetry  and  what 
is  poetical,  261 ;  verse  indispensable  to 
poetry,  261 ;  when  any  composition  is 
poetical  in  essence,  261 ;  poetical  dis- 
tinguished from  prosaic,  262;  origin 
of  the  word  poet,  262 ;  definition  of 
poetry,  263 ;  relation  to  the  other  arts, 
263;  epic  poetry,  263-266 ;  high  char- 
acter of  the  epic,  263;  the  subject 
should  be  great,  263 ;  unity  of  the  epic, 
264 ;  method  of  narration  in  the  epic, 
264 ;  the  epic  must  have  a  hero,  265 ; 
must  have  a  plot,  265 ;  must  be  serious, 
265 ;  must  have  a  story,  265 ;  metrical 
romances  near  akin  to  the  epic,  266 ; 
dramatic  poetry,  266-268 ;  likeness  to 
epic,  266 ;  dramatic  unities,  266,  267 ; 
acts  and  scenes,  267;  tragedy  and 
comedy,  267 ;  Greek  dramatists,  267 ; 
Shakespeare,  the  greatest  of  drama- 
tists, 268;  farce,  opera,  melodrama, 
268;  lyric  poetry,  268-270 ;  lyric  poe- 
try the  oldest  kind  in  every  nation, 
268;  differing  from  epic,  268;  odes, 
268-270 ;  sacred  odes,  269 ;  psalms  and 
hymns,  269 ;  hymn  writers,  269;  heroic 
odes,  269;  comic  songs,  270;  Baccha- 
nalian songs,  270 ;  sonnets,  270 ;  elegy, 
270  4  epitaph,  271;  pastoral  poetry, 
271 ;  Theocritus  and  Virgil,  271 ;  Spen- 
ser's Shepherds'  Calendar,  271;  ec- 
logues, 271 ;  idyls,  271 ;  didactic  poe- 
try, 272;  poe.'ry  less  affected  with 
Latin  isms  than  prose,  376. 

Polysyndeton,  134. 

Pope,  Alexander,  his  rule  in  regard  to 
use  of  new  words,  75 ;  balanced  sen- 
tences, 98;  inversion,  118;  sound 
adapted  to  sense,  145 ;  belittling  sim- 
ile, 161;  mixed  metaphor,  164;  meta- 
phor, 182;  simile,  189;  alliU'iation, 
233;  mistake  in  regard  to  the,  true 
genius  of  English  verse,  248;  6BMy 
on  criticism,  an  example  of  didactic 
poetry,  272 ;  Essay  on  Man,  meditative 
poetry,  272. 

Posture  of  devotion,  how  differing  from 
attitude,  84. 

Pouring,  more  precise  than  turning 
out,  83. 

Power,  an  element  of  the  sublime,  199 ; 
a  locomotive  and  train  as  an  example 


INDEX. 


391 


of  power,  199;  steam-hammers,  199; 
various  natural  objects,  199,  200 ;  the 
war-horse,  200. 

Precision  of  diction,  83-88 ;  meaning  of 
the  term,  83 ;  examples  of  words  not 
used  precisely,  83 ;  precision  promoted 
by  use  of  synonyms,  84 

Predicate,  principal  p.  in  the  sentence, 
the  place  for  it,  117,  120;  skill  in  dis- 
posing of  the  principal  predicate  im- 
portant in  elocution,  120. 

Predicate,  used  for  predict,  80;  for 
founded,  82 ;  for  presage,  83. 

Preposition,ending  a  sentence  with,  136. 

■Present  use  of  a  word,  as  opposed  to 
obsolete,  76. 

President,  true  etiquette  in  addressing 
him,  282. 

Prevent,  meaning  changed,  79. 

Procter,  Adelaide,  specimen  of  verse,  256. 

Professional  titles,  in  addressing  let- 
ters, 281. 

Promise,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Pronouns,  misplacement  of  them  causes 
ambiguity,  112-114. 

Proper  names  require  capitals,  65,  66. 

Propriety  of  diction,  78-83. 

Prose,  less  rhythmic  than  poetry,  224; 
prose  composition,  273-305;  letters, 
273-283 ;  diaries,  283,  284 ;  news,  284- 
287 ;  editorials,  287, 288 ;  reviews,  288- 
291;  essays,  291,  292;  treatises,  292; 
travels,  293 ;  history,  293-297 ;  annals, 
297 ;  memoirs,  298 ;  biography,  298 ;  fic- 
tion, 298-300 ;  discourses,  301-305. 

Provoke,  how  used  formerly,  79. 

Pruning,  needed,  132;  striking  out 
"  very,"  etc.,  133. 

Psalms  and  hymns,  the  construction 
of  their  stanzas,  242 ;  long,  short,  com- 
mon, particular  metres,  etc.,  243-246 ; 
a  part  of  lyric  poetry,  269. 

Punctuation,  21-63 ;  defined,  21 ;  origin 
of  the  word,  21 ;  invented  by  Aldus 
Manutius,  21 ;  points  used  for  gram- 
matical rather  than  elocutionary  pur- 
poses, 22 ;  list  of  the  points,  22,  23. 

Purity  of  diction,  72-78. 

Pyramids,  Napoleon's  reference  to 
them  sublime,  203. 

Quatrain,  defined,  226. 


Questions,  when  to  be  followed  by  an 
interrogation  point,  and  when  not, 
46 ;  question  and  answer  followed  by 
dash,  53 ;  when  to  begin  with  a  capi- 
tal, 64. 

Quintilian,  rule  about  ambiguity,  110. 

Quotations,  58,  61 ;  short  quotations  re- 
quire comma,  35;  quotations,  when 
preceded  by  a  colon,  40 ;  rule  for  the 
use  of  quotations,  58;  use  of  single 
commas  instead  of  double  in  quoting, 
59;  plagiarism,  58;  quotation  inside 
of  another  quotation,  59;  quotation 
marks  at  the  beginning  of  every  line 
discouraged,  60;  quotation,  when  to 
begin  with  a  capital,  64. 

Rabbit  and  Cat,  described,  as  an  ex- 
ercise in  composition,  336. 

Head,  T.  Buchanan,  Sheridan's  Ride  a 
specimen  of  mixed  verse,  240. 

Recommend,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Redundancy,  effect  of,  131 ;  source  of, 
132 ;  danger  in  the  opposite  direction, 
132. 

Regal,  royal,  kingly,  how  distin- 
guished, 86. 

Regularity  of  figure  pleasing,  207. 

Relative  clauses,  require  comma,  28; 
danger  of  making  the  sentence  com- 
plicated, 127;  how  to  be  prevented, 
127. 

Relative  pronouns,  often  improperly 
omitted,  132. 

Religious  fiction,  300. 

Replace,  peculiar  use  of  the  word,  81. 

Reputable  use  of  a  word,  as  opposed  to 
vulgar,  76. 

Resent,  meaning  changed,  79. 

Residence,  how  to  be  given  in  address- 
ing a  letter,  282. 

Respectively  for  respectfully,  81. 

Restrictive  clauses  distinguished  from 
intermediate,  26 ;  distinguished  from 
relative,  28,  29. 

Reviews,  288;  description  of  a  review, 
288;  Macaulay's  review  of  Milton, 
289;  other  reviewers,  290 ;  Edinburgh 
Review,  291. 

Rhetoric,  defined,  17 ;  related  to  gram- 
mar and  logic,  18;  divisions,  18;  com- 
pared to  architecture,  197. 


392 


INDEX. 


Rhyme,  231-237;  origin  of  rhyme,  231; 
Latin  rhymes,  232 ;  etymology  of  the 
word,  232;  definition  of  rhyme,  232; 
location  of  rhyme,  232 ;  single,  double, 
etc.,  233;  rhyme  at  beginning  of  a 
word,  233 ;  conditions  of  rhyme,  234 ; 
*  ..usual  place  of  the  rhyme,  236;  sec- 
tional rhyme,  237. 

Rhythm,  on  what  it  depends,  224 ;  ex- 
ists in  both  prose  and  poetry,  224; 
difference  between  prose  and  poetry 
as  to  rhythm,  225 ;  a  source  of  pleas- 
ure, 224;  definition  of  rhythm,  225; 
requirements  of  modern  verse  in  re- 
gard to  rhythm,  249. 

Rhythm-royal,  the  Chaucerian  stanza, 
its  construction  explained,  240. 

Right,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Rogers's  Pleasures  of  the  Memory,  272. 

Roget,  Thesaurus  of  English  Words,  use- 
ful in  studying  synonyms,  84. 

Rollo,  invasion  and  settlement  of  Nor- 
mandy, 369. 

Roman,  migrations  of  the  race,  363 ;  set- 
tlement in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain, 
363,  364 ;  words  left  in  Britain  by  the 
early  conquest,  364. 

Romance,  metrical,  266. 

Running  titles,  62. 

Sanscrit,  its  discovery  by  Europeans, 
354;  the  linguistic  theory  to  which  it 
has  given  rise,  355. 

Satire,  272. 

Savage  races,  addicted  to  the  use  of 
figures,  155. 

Saoce,  a  humorist,  219 ;  specimen  of  ver- 
sification, 256,  259. 

Saxon  alliterative  verse,  233.  (See 
Anglo-Saxon.) 

Scandinavian  languages,  357. 

Scenes  in  dramatic  poetry,  267. 

Scheie  de  Vere,  Studies  in  English,  352. 

Scholarship,  a  means  of  corrupting  the 
language,  372. 

Scientific,  how  differing  from  the  beau- 
tiful, 211. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  versification  of  the 
boat-song  in  Lady  of  the  Lake,  231 ; 
examples  of  double  rhymes,  233 ;  sec- 
tional rhymes,  236;  his  metrical  ro- 


Sculptor,  74 ;  sentimental,  74. 

Section,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Semicolon,  pp.  36-39;  word  explained, 36. 

Sentences,  92-153;  periodic,  92;  loose, 
93 ;  balanced,  98 ;  short  and  long,  100 ; 
rules  for  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences, 104 ;  clearness,  104 ;  emphasis, 
117;  unity,  123;  strength,  131;  har- 
mony, 140;  long  sentences,  how  to 
maintain  their  unity,  124 ;  sometimes 
to  be  broken  into  several,  126. 

Sermons,  302. 

Sestette,  a  division  of  the  sonnet,  242. 

Settle,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Sex,  how  to  be  distinguished  in  the  sig- 
nature to  a  letter,  279. 

Shaftesbury,  example  of  misplaced  ad- 
verb, 105 ;  example  of  skilful  construc- 
tion, 121. 

Shakespeare,  example  of  metaphor, 
162,  163,  165,  182,  187,  189,  190 ;  simile, 
190,  192 ;  sonnets  punning  on  his  own 
name,  215 ;  alliteration,  233  -r  plays  in 
blank  verse,  237 ;  example  of  Chau- 
cerian stanza,  or  rhythm-royal,  240; 
freedom  of  his  verse,  247  ;  on  poetical 
imagination,262 ;  the  greatest  of  dram- 
atists, 268;  purity  of  his  English,  376. 

Shelley's  Adonals,  an  elegy  in  the  Spen- 
serian stanza,  271. 

Shemitic  languages,  358. 

Sheridan's  Ride,  T.  B.  Read,  a  speci- 
men of  mixed  verse,  240. 

/S/teWocfc,example  of  pronoun  misplaced, 
114. 

Short  and  long  sentences,  100-103; 
rule  on  the  subject,  101 ;  difference 
of  French  and  German  writers  in 
this  respect,  101 ;  Bishop  Doane's  short 
sentences,  101. 

Sighs,  Bridge  of,  versification  of,  231. 

Signature  to  a  letter,  278,  279. 

Simile,  157-161 ;  why  similes  please,  157 ; 
burlesque  similes,  158 ;  object  of  sim- 
ile, 158;  mere  likeness  not  simile, 
158 ;  example  from  Ossian,  158 ;  rules 
for  simile,  159-161;  likeness  should 
not  be  too  near,  159 ;  a  likeness  that 
surprises,  159;  trite  similes,  159;  s. 
far-fetched,  159;  likeness  to  things 
with  which  common  readers  are  un- 
acquainted, 160;  likeness  to  things 


INDEX. 


393 


mean  and  low,  160 ;  similes  inappro- 
priate to  strong  passion,  161 ;  differ- 
ence between  s.  and  metaphor,  162 
example  of  simile,  from  Bible,  185 
Dryden,  183,  184;  Goldsmith,  190 
Heber,  193;  Holland,  195;  Holmes 
193 ;  Longfellow,  194 ;  Macaulay,  187 
Shakespeare,  182,  190,  192 ;  Willis,  192 

Simplicity  necessary  to  the  sublime,  204. 

Slavonic  languages,  357. 

Solitude  and  silence  inspire  awe,  200. 

Songs,  a  species  of  lyric,  269,  270. 

Sonnet  stanza,  its  construction  ex- 
plained, 241 ;  a  species  of  lyric,  270. 

Sophocles,  268. 

Sound,  mere  sound  of  words  not  to  be 
disregarded,  140 ;  adapted  to  the  sense, 
144,  145 ;  great  variety  of  sound  ad- 
missible in  the  higher  kind  of  har- 
mony, 145;  loudness  of  sound  an  ele- 
ment of  the  sublime,  201. 

Speeches,  302. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  metaphor,  163. 

Spenser,  author  of  the  Spenserian  stan- 
za, 241;   freedom  of  his  verse,  249 
position  of  the  Faerie  Queene,  266 
Hymns  on   Love  and   Beauty,  269 
Shepherds'  Calendar,  271. 

Splitting  particles,  133. 

Squinting  construction,  109. 

Stanza,  defined,  226,  240;  Chaucerian 
stanza,  or  rhythm-royal,  240 ;  Spense- 
rian stanza,  241 ;  sonnet  stanza,  241 ; 
psalm  and  hymn  stanzas,  242. 

Starvation,  when  coined,  74. 

State,  care  about  contracting  the  name, 
in  heading  and  addressing  a  letter, 
276,  282. 

Station,  how  used  by  Shakespeare,  79. 

Steam-hammers,  an  example  of  the 
sublime,  199. 

Stopping,  used  incorrectly,  82. 

Story,  a  story  needed  as  a  main  element 
in  the  epic,  but  not  in  lyric,  didactic, 
pastoral,  etc.,  265. 

Strength  of  Sentences,  131-140;  af- 
fected by  redundant  words,  131 ;  by 
the  use  of  "very,"  etc.,  133;  by  skill 
in  using  the  words  of  connection  and 
transition,  133 ;  by  the  mode  of  bring- 
ing to  a  conclusion,  135;  by  con- 
trasted changes,  137 ;  by  climax,  137. 


Style,  a  division  of  rhetoric,  18;  why 
treated  before  Invention,  18;  origin 
of  the  word,  19;  relations  of  style  to 
invention,  20;  topics  included  in  style, 
20 ;  special  properties  of  style,  197-219. 

Subject,  place  of  the  principal  s.  in  the 
sentence,  117, 118 ;  not  necessarily  the 
grammatical  subject,  117;  important 
for  the  emphasis,  118;  change  of  s. 
breaks  the  unity  of  sentence,  125; 
subject  of  discourse  should  be  beauti- 
ful, 211. 

Subjects  for  compositions,  310,  314, 
317,  324,  334,  340,  342-346. 

Sublimity,  198-206 ;  how  we  get  the  idea 
of  sublimity,  198 ;  how  defined,  198 ; 
elements  of  tae  sublime  :  1.  vastness, 
198 ;  2.  power,  199 ;  3.  awfulness,  200 ; 
4.  obscurity,  200 ;  5.  loudness  of  sound, 
201 ;  6.  moral  greatness,  201 ;  the  sub- 
lime in  writing,  202;  sublimity  of 
subject,  202;  vivid  conception  of 
strong  points,  203 ;  suppression  of  be- 
littling.details,  203 ;  simplicity  of  ex- 
pression, 204 ;  sublimity  destroyed  by 
use  of  too  many  words,  205 ;  relation 
of  sublimity  to  beauty,  206. 

Suffi,cientKdistinguished  from  enough, 
86. 

Suicide,  74. 

Sunday-school  story-books,  301. 

Superscription  or  address  of  a  letter, 
280-283. 

Supplementary  clauses  objectionable, 
128 ;  Blair  on  the  subject,  128. 

Surprise,  an  element  in  simile,  159 ;  an 
element  of  wit,  212;  an  element  of 
humor,  217. 

Swift,  example  of  misplaced  adverb,  105 ; 
adverbial  clause  misplaced,  107 ;  mis- 
placement of  the  relative  pronoun, 
114;  want  of  unity,  123;  sentence 
with  unconnected  things  crowded 
together,  125 ;  crowded  metaphor,  165 ; 
metaphor,  189. 

Sydney  Smith,  illustrations  of  wit,  212 ; 
advantages  and  disadvantagesof  being 
witty,  216, 217 ;  observation  on  humor, 
217 ;  as  a  reviewer,  290. 

Syllable,  the  measure  of  a  vocal  impulse, 
222 ;  syllabic  verse  distinguished  from 
accented,  247. 


394 


INDEX. 


Synecdoche  explained,  172. 

Synonyms,  the  study  of  them  promotes 
precision,  84 ;  character  of  the  English 
language  in  regard  to  synonyms,  84 ; 
books  on  the  subject,  84 ;  English  par- 
ticularly favorable  to  synonyms,  378. 

Taylor,  B.  F.,  specimen  of  verse,  257. 

Teachers,  notes  to,  25,  44,  78,  81, 308,  310, 
312,  314,  317,  318,  326. 

Temple,  Sir  William,  example  of  periodic 
sentence,  92. 

Tennyson,  sound  adapted  to  sense,  146; 
example  of  metaphor,  196;  Charge  of 
Light  Brigade,  versification  of,  231; 
example  of  sectional  rhyme,  236 ;  ex- 
amples of  versification,  253 ;  Idyls  of 
the  King,  266,  271 ;  In  Memoriam,.an 
Elegy,  271. 

Tetrameter,  227,  231. 

Teutonic  languages,  357. 

Thackeray,  a  humorist,  219. 

Theocritus,  a  pastoral  poet,  271. 

Thersites,  in  the  Iliad,  not  inconsistent 
with  the  epic,  265. 

Tliomson's  Seasons,  272. 

TJioroughly,  73. 

Thunder  and  TAghtninQ,  sublime, 
199;  Byron's  description  of  a  thun- 
der-storm, 203. 

Tillotson,exa.m$le  of  pronoun  misplaced, 
113 ;  inharmonious  sentence,  143. 

Time,  an  interval  between  local  impulses, 
222. 

Timid,  74. 

Title-pages,  punctuation  of,  40,  43. 

Titles,  in  addressing  letters,  280,  282. 

TMes,  punctuation  of,  43,  52,  63,  64,  66. 

Tooke,  Home,  example  of  pun,  215. 

Total,  distinguished  from  whole,  en~ 
tire,  complete,  86. 

Tragedy,  267. 

Transactions,  compositions  on,  312. 

Translation,  extemporaneous,  useful 
for  acquiring  command  of  words,  71. 

Transpire,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Travelling,  outline  for  composition  on 
it,  314. 

Travels,  293;  importance  of  accuracy,  293. 

Treatises,  292;  how  differing  from  es- 
says, 292 ;  text-books,  292. 

Trench,  Archdeacon,  on  the  Study  of 


Words,  352;  examples  of  loose  sen- 
tences, 95,  96. 

Tribune,  example  of  metaphor,  179. 

Trip  from  Philadelphia  to  Trenton,  de- 
scribed, 330. 

Triplet,  defined,  226. 

Trite  similes,  159. 

Trochee,  227;  trochaic  verse,  227,  229; 
trochaic  metres  for  hymns,  how  desig- 
nated, 245. 

Tropes,  how  related  to  figures,  155. 

Truism,  used  incorrectly,  83. 

Tuckerman,  as  an  essayist,  292. 

Turning  out,  less  precise  than  pour~ 
ing,  83. 

Tusser,  example  of  middle  rhyme,  232 ; 
sectional  rhyme,  237. 

Umbrella,  74. 

Unity  of  sentence,  123-130;  not  incom- 
patible with  numerous  details,  123; 
injured  by  change  of  subject,  125;  by 
crowding  together  things  uncon- 
nected, 125 ;  by  relative  clauses,  126 ; 
by  parenthesis,  127 ;  by  supplement- 
ary clauses,  128;  unity  of  an  epic 
poem,  264. 

Unless  and  except,  80. 

Use  as  the  law  of  language,  76,  77 ;  Camp- 
bell's essay  on  the  subject,  89-91; 
reputable  use,  89 ;  national,  90 ;  pres- 
ent, 91. 

Vacation,  How  I  Spent  it,  several  com- 
positions on  the  subject,  326. 

Variety  of  figures  an  element  of  beauty, 
208. 

Vastness,  an  element  of  the  sublime, 
198;  vastness  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion less  sublime  than  the  same  ex- 
tent upwards  or  downwards,  199 ;  the 
firmament  an  example  of  vastness 
199. 

Vedas,  the  ancient  sacred  book  of  the 
Hindoos,  356. 

Verb,  ellipsis  of,  requires  comma,  35. 

Vernacular,  74. 

Versification,  220-260;  foundation  of 
verse,  220 ;  the  state  of  the  question, 
220;  verse  pleasing  even  in  an  un- 
known language,  221 ;  accent  the  par- 
amount law  of  English  verse,  223; 


INDEX. 


395 


rhythm,  what  it  is,  224 ;  general  divi- 
sion of  the  subject,  225;  rhythm,  225- 
231 ;  rhyme,  231-237 ;  blank  verse,  237 ; 
mixed  verse,  238-240 ;  stanzas,  240-247; 
modern  verse  accentual,  not  syllabic, 
247,  248;  elision,  248,  249;  definition 
of  verse  and  of  versification,  225,  226 ; 
alliterative  verse,  233;  present  state 
of  English  verse,  248 ;  mistake  of  Pope 
and  Dryden  in  regard  to  verse,  248 ; 
requirements  of  modern  verse  in  re- 
gard to  elision,  249. 

Very,  frequent  use  of,  to  be  avoided,  133. 

Virgil,  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  204 ; 
the  first  line  in  Virgil,  transposed  into 
prose,  loses  its  pleasing  effect  upon  the 
ear,  221 ;  effect  of  dactyls  illustrated, 

\  238 ;  the  iEneid  one  of  the  three  great 
epics  of  the  world,  263 ;  Georgics  an 
example  of  didactic  poetry,  272. 

Vivid  conception  of  strong  points  nec- 
essary to  sublime  writing,  203. 

Vocabulary,  how  enlarged,  71. 

Vocal  delivery,  subject  omitted,  17; 
vocal  impulse  a  necessary  element  in 
pronunciation,  222. 

Vocative  case  requires  comma,  34. 

Volcanoes,  sublime,  199. 

Vulcan  and  Cyclops,  199. 

Waller,  example  of  metaphor,  183. 
Wan,  how  differing  from  pale  and  pallid, 

85. 
War-horse,  a  sublime  object,  200. 
Water,  outline  for  composition  on  it,  310. 
Watts,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 
Webster,  Daniel,  example  of  senatorial 

eloquence,  262. 
Webster's  Quarto  Dictionary,  useful  in 

studying  synonyms,  84. 
Weight,  how  differing  from  heaviness,  85. 
Welsh  languages,  366,  367. 
Wesley,  a  hymn  writer,  269. 
Whately,  remark  about  the  use  of  ital- 
ics, 120 ;  on  the  necessity  of  poetry's 

being  in  verse,  261. 
Wf tipple,  as  an  essayist,  291. 
White,  Richard  Grant,  on  Words  and 

their  Uses,  352. 
Wfiitney,  Prof.  M.  D.,  on  the  Science  of 

Language,  352. 
Whittier,  instance  of  euphony,  142 ;  met- 


aphor, 188 ;  Barbara  Frietchie,  a  speci- 
men of  mixed  verse,  240. 

Whole,  distinguished  from  entire,  to- 
tal, complete,  86. 

Widows,  their  signatures,  279. 

Willis,  simile,  192. 

Wit  and  humor,  how  different  from 
sublimity  and  beauty,  212 ;  wit,  212- 
217;  ingredients  of  wit,  212;  exam- 
ples, 213 ;  definition  of  wit,  213 ;  illus- 
trations, 213;  pun  a  species  of  wit, 
214 ;  some  celebrated  puns,  214 ;  Shake- 
speare's punning  sonnets,  215;  habit 
of  punning,  216 ;  habit  of  being  witty, 
216 ;  its  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
216. 

With,  distinguished  from  by,  86. 

Wards,  command  of,  important,  71 ;  for- 
eign, 72 ;  foreign  w.  domesticated,  73 ; 
obsolete,  73 ;  new,  73 ;  suspended  ani- 
mation of  words,  74;  law  of  verbal 
formation,  74,  75 ;  safe  plan  in  regard 
to  new  words,  75 ;  Pope's  rule  in  re- 
gard to  new  words,  75 ;  words  without 
proper  authority,  76 ;  Horace's  dictum 
in  regard  to  words,  76;  Campbell's 
positions  in  regard  to  use  as  the  law 
of  language,76 ;  abstract  of  Campbell's 
essay  on  the  subject,  89-91 ;  propriety 
of  diction,  78 ;  means  of  acquiring  a 
proper  use  of  words,  79;  meaning  of 
words  changed,  79 ;  words  used  im- 
properly, examples  of,  80,  81 ;  words 
not  used  precisely,  83 ;  precision,  how 
obtained,  83 ;  principal  words  in  the 
sentence  not  to  be  entangled,  121 ;  re- 
dundancy, 131,  132;  words  having  a 
harmonious  sound,  140 ;  arrangement 
of  words  in  reference  to  sound,  141, 142. 

Wordsworth,  fine  example  of  personifi- 
cation, 177. 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  introduced  the  son* 
net  into  England,  270. 

Young,  example  of  antithesis,  170 ;  met- 
aphor, 180-182,  188;  hyperbole,  190; 
Night  Thoughts,  272. 

Zend,  the  ancient  language  of  Persia, 

356 ;  Zend-Avesta,  356. 
Zoroasters,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 

Persia,  356. 


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